Chemistry by Muslims

Chemistry as a science is unquestionably theinvention of the Muslims.
It is one of the sciences in which Muslims have made the greatest
contribution and developed it to such a high degree of perfection that
they were considered authorities in this science until the end of the
17th century A. D.
Jabir and Zakariya Razihave the distinction of being thegreatest
chemists the mediaeval timesproduced. Writing in his illuminating
History of the Arabs, Philip K. Hitti acknowledges the greatness of
Arabs in this branch of science when he says, "After materia medica,
astronomy and mathematics, the Arabs made their greatest scientific
contribution in chemistry. In the study of chemistry and other
physical sciences, the Arabs introduced the objective experiment, a
decided improvement over the hazy speculation of Greeks. Accurate in
the observation of phenomena and diligent in the accumulation of
facts, the Arabs nevertheless found it difficult to project proper
hypotheses."
Jabir Ibn Hayyan (Geber)
Jabir Ibn Hayyan (Geber)who flourished in Kufa about776 A.D.is known
as thefather of modern chemistryand along with Zakariya Razi, stands
as the greatest name in the annals of chemical science during
mediaeval times. He got his education fromUmayyad Prince Khalid Ibn
Yazid Ibn Muawiyahand the celebrated Imam Jafar al-Sadiq.
He worked on the assumption that metals like lead, tin and iron could
be transformed into gold by mixing certain chemical substances. It is
said that he manufactured a large quantity of gold with the help of
that mysterious substance and two centuries later, when a street was
rebuilt in Kufa a large piece of gold was unearthed from his
laboratory.
He laid great emphasis on the importance of experimentation in his
research and hence he made great headway in chemical science, Western
writers credit him with thediscovery of several chemicalcompounds,
which are not mentioned in his twenty-two extant Arabic works.
According to Max Meyerhof "His influence may be traced throughout the
whole historic course of European alchemy and chemistry." He is
credited, with the writing of100 chemical works. "Nevertheless, the
works to which his name was attached" says Hitti, "were after the 14th
century, the most influential chemical treatises in both Europe and
Asia."
He explained scientifically thetwo principal operationsof
chemistry,calcinationandreduction, and registered a marked improvement
in the methods ofevaporation,sublimation
filtration,distillationandcrystallization. Jabir modified and
corrected the Aristotelian theory of theconstituents of metal, which
remained unchanged until the beginning of modern chemistry in the 18th
century.
He has explained in his works thepreparation of many chemical
substancesincluding "Cinnabar" (sulphide of mercury) and arsenic
oxide. It has been established through historical research that he
knew how to obtain nearly pure vitrilos, alums, alkalis and how to
produce 'the so-called liver' and milk of sulphur byheating sulphur
with alkali.
He preparedmercury oxideand was fully conversant with the preparation
of crude sulphuric and nitric acids. He knew the method of thesolution
of gold and silverwith this acid. His chemical treatises on such
subjects have beentranslated into several Europeanlanguages including
Latin and several technical scientific terms invented by Jabir have
been adopted in modern chemistry.
A real estimate of his achievements is only possible when his enormous
chemical work including theBook of Seventyare published. Richard
Russell (1678, A.D.) an English translator ascribes a book entitledSun
of Perfection to Jabir. A number of his chemical works have been
published by Berthelot. His books translated into English are theBook
of Kingdom,Book of BalancesandBook of Easternmercury.
Jabir also advanced a theory on thegeologic formation of metalsand
dealt with many useful practical applications of chemistry such as
refinement of metals, preparation of steel and dyeing of cloth and
leather, varnishing of waterproof cloth and use of manganese dioxide
to color glass.
Jabir was recognized as themasterby the later chemists
includingAl-Tughrai and Abu al-Qasim al-Iraqiwho flourished in the
12th and 13th centuries respectively. These Muslim chemists made
little improvement on the methods of Jabir. They confined themselves
to the quest of the legendary elixir which they could never find.
Zakariya Razi
Zakariya Raziknown asRhazasin Latin is thesecond great namein
mediaeval chemical science. Born in 850 A.D. at Rayy, he is known as
one of the greatest physicians of all times. He wroteKitab al Asrarin
chemistry dealing with the preparation of chemical substances and
their application. His great work of the art of alchemy was recently
found in the library of an Indian prince.
Razi has proved himself to be a greater expert than all his
predecessors, including Jabir, in the exactclassification of
substances. His description of chemical experiments as well as their
apparatus are distinguished for their clarity which were not visible
in the writings of his predecessors. Jabir and other Arabian chemists
divided mineral substances into bodies (gold, silver etc.), souls
(sulphur, arsenic, etc.) and spirits (mercury and sal-ammoniac) while
Razi classified hismineral substances as vegetable, animal and
mineral.
Other Notable Chemists
The mineral substances were also classified byAl-Jabiz.Abu Mansur
Muwaffaqhas contributed to the method of the preparation and
properties of mineral substances.Abul Qasimwho was a renowned chemist
prepared drugs by sublimation and distillation. High class sugar and
glass were manufactured in Islamic countries. The Arabs were also
expert in themanufacture of ink, lacquers,solders, cements and
imitationpearls.

The Prophet's Hajj

In the tenth year of the Hijrah, or 632 AD, the Prophet Muhammadset
out for Makkah to perform Hajj. This time about 100,000 believers
accompanied him. This pilgrimage is commonly known as the Farewell
Hajj. It was during this time that he explained the rules of Hajj and
gave his famous speech, known as the Final Sermon.
Upon reaching Makkah, the Prophetand his followers put on the white
sheets that showed their equality before Allah Almighty. This is
called Ihram. Then the pilgrims went directly to the Ka'bah and walked
round it seven times in a counter-clockwise direction. This is called
the Tawaf. As the Muslim pilgrims arrived, they called out: Here I am,
O Allah, here I am! Here I am, O You without equal, Here I am! Yours
is the kingdom, the praise and the glory, O You without equal, God
Alone!
This is the prayer called the Talbiyah, which is the answer to the
Divine call to come and give one's life wholly to Allah.
Next, they ran back and forth seven times between the small hills of
Safa and Marwah in memory of the time when Allah Almighty tested the
Prophet Ibrahim, peace be upon him, and his family. This is called the
Sa'i, and it shows the soul's determined search for that which gives
true life.
Allah had told Ibrahim, peace be upon him, to leave his wife, Hajar,
and their son, Isma'il ]Ishmael, peace be upon him[, in His care in
the uninhabited valley of Makkah. In the barren desert the two soon
began to die of thirst. Frantic, Hajar ran back and forth between the
hilltops trying to spot a passing caravan in the distance. But there
was none. Finally, when all seemed lost, a spring gushed forth at the
feet of the suffering child, Isma'il, peace be upon him. This spring
is now known as the well of Zamzam. It reminds pilgrims of the truth,
that when all hope has vanished, God remains to give healing, strength
and life to the soul.
Now the pilgrims had completed the rites in the Sacred Mosque in
Makkah. On the eighth day of the Hajj, the pilgrims went to the valley
of Mina, about ten kilometers from the Ka'bah, where Allah Almighty
tested Ibrahim, peace be upon him, by ordering him to sacrifice his
son, Isma'il. At the last moment, Allah Almighty stopped Ibrahim,
peace be upon him, and allowed him to sacrifice a ram instead.
The Farewell Sermon
On the ninth day of the Prophet's Hajj, the pilgrims proceeded to the
Plain of Arafat to stand on the Mount of Mercy. There they stood in
the sweltering heat, bareheaded, thinking about Allah Almighty and
praying for His mercy. This is called the Woqouf. Here, on that day
during the sermon, an important passage of the Quran was revealed to
the Prophet Muhammad:"…This day I have perfected for you your religion
and completed My favor upon you and have approved for you Islam as
religion…"]Quran 5:3[
The Prophetspoke to his followers. He told the Muslims to let the
Quran and his own example be their source of guidance in life. He
ordered them to stop living as they had done before Islam. The age-old
practice of revenge ended. Property was to be respected. And, he
said,"Know that Muslims are brothers to one another."This was a new
idea amongst the quarreling tribes."Have I made myself very
clear?"asked the Prophetafter every point.
After the sermon, the Prophetlooked up and cried:"My Lord! Have I
delivered aright the Message I was charged with and fulfilled my
calling?"Then he told the gathering:"You will be asked about me, so
what will you say?"
They answered with one voice: "We bear witness that you have conveyed
Allah's message, performed your duty and that you have meant goodness
for us." Pointing his index finger toward heaven and then to the
people, he said:"O Allah, be witness; O Allah, be witness; O Allah, be
witness."The Prophetended his speech by saying,"Let those present
convey the message to those who are absent."
By sunset, they headed back toward Mina, gathering pebbles along the
way. On the next day, they performed the ritual of casting their
pebbles, symbolized by three pillars set up in memory of how Ibrahim,
peace be upon him, and his family resisted the temptation of Satan. In
doing this, the pilgrims pledged themselves once more to Allah
Almighty and promised to do their best to drive any devils out of
themselves.
Finally, animals were sacrificed, and the pilgrims returned to perform
the Farewell Tawaf of the Ka'bah. The meat from the sacrifices was
sent to the poor and needy.
Three months after returning from the Farewell Pilgrimage to Madinah,
the Prophetfell ill. The Messenger of Allahdied on 8th June 632 A.D.
He was 63 years old.

Lessons Drawn from the Obligation of Hajj - I

The days of Hajj passed, its rituals are over and most of the pilgrims
returned home, carrying the memories of their journey to the House of
Allah Almighty. However, if the rituals of Hajj are over, its benefits
and objectives are not and will never come to an end.
A Christian missionary once said:
Islam will remain the strong rock that will destroy the ships of
Christian missionary activities as long as it has such strong pillars:
the Quran, Friday gathering and the conference of Hajj.
If this is how the enemies of the Muslims understand the objectives of
Hajj and the great role that it can play in the nation of Islam, then
how do Muslims themselves find Hajj? What are the benefits that one
can have during the anniversary of Hajj? What are the lessons that the
Ummah can draw from Hajj? Is Hajj composed of just rituals that are to
be fulfilled, rites, supplications and invocations that are to be
performed, or is it something greater than that?
Allah Almighty, Whose wisdom is great and sublime, can never Prescribe
nor Impose something unless it has numerous benefits and wisdom that
no one's knowledge can comprehend except Him, The Exalted, regardless
of who comprehends or does not comprehend this.
The nation of Islam in its times of difficulty and weakness needs – or
rather, it is in dire need of it – to thoughtfully contemplate, learn
and analyze every objective of the rituals of Islam, and Hajj is one
of them. In this way, it will draw lessons, renew determination, and
correct the direction and intention so that it may adhere firmly to
this religion and strive hard for its superiority, fighting whoever
averts from its way and stands against it.
The obligation of Hajj is great in its rituals, sublime in its
characteristics, noble in its fruits, magnificent in its benefits and
wonderful in its effects. It has uncountable benefits and interests.
Rather, Hajj includes the noblest objectives, the greatest wisdom and
extraordinary benefits. Allah Almighty Has Pointed out such benefits
and objectives in simple words, Saying )what means(:}And proclaim to
the people the Hajj ]pilgrimage[; they will come to you on foot and on
every lean camel; they will come from every distant pass. That they
may witness benefits for themselves.{]Quran 22: 27-28[ Ibn 'Abbaas,
May Allah Be Pleased with him, said, "The benefits of the worldly life
and the Hereafter."
Raising the banner of Tawheed )Islamic monotheism( high:
One of the greatest and foremost objectives of Hajj is raising the
banner of Tawheed high and reviving its characteristics that have
perished. This is the most important and clear objective of the
journey of Hajj. It accompanies it from the very beginning through
dedicating one's intention to Allah Almighty, Alone, and raising the
voice with Talbiyah to the very end with the last time of throwing the
pebbles during the last Days of At-Tashreeq, which is the last of the
rituals of Hajj that the pilgrim does before performing Tawaaf
Al-Wadaa', leaving Makkah to go home.
The people of the pre-Islamic era and Quraysh used to say Talbiyah and
associate partners with Allah Almighty in Talbiyah, saying:
Labbayka Allahumma labbayk. Labbayka la shareeka laka Illa Shareek
Huwa Lak, Tamlikuhu wama Malak )I respond to Your call, I respond to
Your call, You Have no partner except the partner that You Have, You
Own Him and whatever he owns(.
However, when the Prophet, sallAllahu 'alayhi wa sallam, came, he
taught his Ummah pure Tawheed through the great beautiful Talbiyah:
Labbayka Allahumma labbayk, Labbayka la shareeka laka labbayk, Innal
hamda wan-ni'amata laka wal mulk, la shareeka lak )I respond to Your
call, O Allah here I come, In response to Your call, You Have no
partner, I respond to Your call. All the praises and blessings are for
You, All the sovereignty is for You, And You Have no partners with
You(.
This Talbiyah indicates sincere devotion and repentance, Tawheed
without associating partners and sincerity that is free of showing
off. Actually, every act that does not have sincerity lacks blessings
and will not be accepted. The Prophet, sallAllahu 'alayhi wa sallam,
said that Allah Almighty Says:
He who does something for someone else's sake as well as Mine will
have that action renounced by Me to him whom he associated with Me and
I Will Disassociate Myself from him.
Therefore, the first lesson that the pilgrim and the Ummah as a whole
should learn perfectly from the lessons of Hajj is that of Tawheed and
repenting to Allah Almighty again at a time when people have started
to worship many different gods and deities and sound faith has
disappeared in the hearts of its people exactly as the embroideries of
a garment do. People have given up worshiping Allah Almighty to
worship others than Him such as supplicating the dead, believing in
the Awliyaa', ascribing worship, presents and vows to the graves,
seeking a child for a barren woman from them, seeking a husband for a
young woman that stayed a long time in the house of her father
unmarried, seeking a cure for the ill or the return of the absent.
Still there is another category of people who worship others than
Allah Almighty, seek support, help and provision from them, making
them their refuge and safety, believing that they are more powerful
than Allah Almighty. When any harm afflicts them, their hearts call
upon and turn to their deities other than Allah Almighty, unlike what
the polytheists used to do. Allah Almighty Says )what means(:
•}And when adversity touches man, he calls upon his Lord, turning to
Him ]alone[{]Quran 39: 8[
•}And when waves come over them like canopies, they supplicate Allah,
sincere to Him in religion. But when He Delivers them to the land,
there are ]some[ of them who are moderate ]in faith[.{]Quran 31: 32[
As for people nowadays, if adversity touches them, they turn to the
gods of the earth. They depend upon them; call upon them; supplicate
them; seek help and support from them; and present sacrifices for
them, even if the sacrifice is to slaughter Tawheed and sound faith.
Not to mention worshiping desires, property, wives, children and the
like. Hajj comes to change all such things. It comes to destroy the
throne of Shirk and establish the tower of Tawheed on its ruins:
Labbayka Allahumma labbayk, Labbayka la shareeka laka labbayk, Innal
hamda wan-ni'amata laka wal mulk, la shareeka lak. You the Almighty
Are The True God and True Deity. There is no Lord except You. There is
no god other than You. Here I come in response to Your call, truly in
devotion and slav¬ery.
Adhering firmly to the footsteps of the Prophet, sallAllahu 'alayhi wa sallam:
Amongst the lessons of Hajj is that the Ummah has to learn, remember
and comprehend – rather, it has to have firm conviction – that there
is no sublimity, success, prosperity nor guidance except through
adhering to and following the way of the Prophet, sallAllahu 'alayhi
wa sallam. To adhere firmly to the footsteps of the Prophet,
sallAllahu 'alayhi wa sallam, means that one should adhere to his
guidance regarding belief, actions, conduct, manners, rulings and
accepting his judgments.
Hajj is a wonderful lesson in this regard. It is practical practice
that the pilgrim will do and the whole Ummah will witness. It has
specific rituals and magnificent order that all pilgrims do at the
same time and place. The Prophet, sallAllahu 'alayhi wa sallam, has
explained this issue while saying when performing every ritual of
Hajj:"Learn from me your rituals )of Hajj and 'Umrah(."
Therefore, Ibn 'Abbaas, May Allah Be Pleased with him, said, "Perform
Hajj in the same way the Prophet, sallAllahu 'alayhi wa sallam, did
and never say this is a Sunnah and this is obligatory."
This matter is not confined to Hajj only, but rather it is to be done
in all the different walks of life. Everyone has to obey the Prophet,
sallAllahu 'alayhi wa sallam, and follow his guidance, otherwise, doom
and abyss will be his fate. Allah Almighty Says )what means(:}But no,
by your Lord, they will not ]truly[ believe until they make you, ]O
Muhammad[, judge concerning that over which they dispute among
themselves and then find within themselves no discomfort from what you
have judged and submit in ]full, willing[ submission. {]Quran 4: 65[

Lessons Drawn from the Obligation of Hajj - II

The Prophet, sallAllahu 'alayhi wa sallam, also said:
•"All of my Ummah will enter Paradise except those who refuse."It was
said, "O Messenger of Allah, who are those who refuse?" He
said,"Whoever obeys me will enter Paradise and whoever disobeys me has
refused."
•"Whoever does any action that is not in accordance with this matter
of ours )i.e. Islam(, will have it rejected."
Allah Almighty also Says )what means(:}So let those beware who dissent
from the Prophet's order, lest Fitnah strike them or a painful
punishment.{]Quran 24: 63[
Complete submission and surrender to the Command of Allah Almighty:
Whoever is enslaved by his customs, taken over by his traditions, or
owned by habits and desires, will not be liberated nor freed;
especially if he weighs all things with his mind and does not take any
action. Rather, he does not adhere to any matter except after
conducting an accurate materialistic evaluation. This is the way of
the slaves of mind and matter. However, Hajj, with its mysterious and
unfamiliar description, is a challenge to the slaves of systems and
arrangements. It is an invitation to achieve complete submission,
belief in the unseen, absolute surrender to the Command of the
Beloved; Allah Almighty, without seeking any proofs or depending on
logic or mental proof. Such absolute submission to the command and
complete surrender to its requirements without knowing the wisdom
behind it is the absolute kind of servitude and slavery to the
Greatest God; Allah Almighty.
Allah Almighty Has Assigned the pilgrims – as Imaam Abu Haamid
Al-Ghazaali, May Allah Have mercy upon him, said – with:
Some acts which involve no fraternizing among people and whose meaning
no intel¬lect can comprehend, such as throwing pebbles and running to
and from repeatedly between Safa and Marwah for example. It is through
such acts that perfect bondage and slavery is manifest. Zakaah is
kindness; its meaning is understood and intellect inclines to it.
Fast¬ing is a break with bestial passion, which is the tool of the
enemy of Allah Almighty, and involves concentration on worship by
abstaining from ]normal[ occupations. Rukoo' )bowing( and )Sujood(
)prostration( in prayer ]express[ submission to Allah Almighty through
acts which represent the ]outward[ forms of submission, But the
running to and fro ]between Safa and Marwah[, and the casting of
stones and similar acts afford no obvious benefit to the soul nor any
natural sociability; nor is the intellect able to discover their
meaning. For whatever the intellect understands, to that is nature
inclined; inclination thus cooperates with the command and together
with it incites to action. Thus, perfect bondage and slavery are
hardly manifest. For this reason, the Prophet, sallAllahu 'alayhi wa
sallam, said, with special reference to Hajj:"Here I am in Hajj, truly
in devotion and slavery."He did not say this in prayer or anything
else.
If the Wisdom of Allah Almighty has decreed that the salva¬tion of
people shall require that their acts be in accordance with the
requirements of submission and ser-vitude – for that whose meanings
cannot be discovered is the most consummate of all the kinds of
worship in cleansing souls and turning them away from the requirements
of nature and ethics to the require¬ments of servitude.
A lesson regarding the unity of the Islamic Ummah:
Amongst the greatest benefits of Hajj is that it affirms the unity of
the Islamic Ummah that is established by the Noble Quran and the
honorable Sunnah as Allah Almighty Says )what means(:}Indeed this,
your religion, is one religion.{]Quran 21: 92[
In Hajj, we find that all Muslims are united in performing the same
specific rituals, away from any differences or distinctions. All
pilgrims perform Tawaaf around the same House, make Sa'y in the same
place, stand at the same destination, turn to only one direction,
recite the same Book, worship the same Lord beside Whom there is no
other god and follow the same Prophet, sallAllahu 'alayhi wa sallam.
All such things enhance the Islamic brotherhood and religious
relationship among all Muslims. Different colors, different shapes and
different countries raise the sublimity of the religion and combine
the power of religion in their hearts and the acts of Hajj among their
bodies and conduct. They, through actions, reject the differences of
nationalities, races and parties. This proves that this Ummah can only
be united by the call of belief and faith, as Allah Almighty Says
)what means(:
•}Indeed this, your religion, is one religion, and I Am your Lord, so
worship Me.{]Quran 21: 92[
•}The believers are but brothers.{]Quran 49: 10[
Also, the Messenger of Allah, sallAllahu 'alayhi wa sallam, said:"The
relationship between one believer and another is like a structure,
parts of which support other parts."
If Muslims realize this noble meaning, act upon it and apply it,
differences and causes of dissension will vanish. Rather, they will be
like a single body, submitting to the Saying of Allah Almighty )which
means(:}And hold firmly to the Rope of Allah all together and do not
become divided.{]Quran 3: 103[
Adopting a moderate and balanced approach in all matters:
One has to avoid all types of exaggeration, going to extremes or being
careless. Imaam Ahmad reported from Ibn 'Abbaas, May Allah Be Pleased
with him, who said: "The Messenger of Allah, sallAllahu 'alayhi wa
sallam, said to me on the morning of Al-'Aqabah: "Come and pick up
pebbles for me." So I picked up pebbles for him that were a little
larger than a chickpea. He put them in his hand and said:"With pebbles
like these stone )the Jamaraat(."Then he added:"O people, beware of
going to extremes, for those who came before you were destroyed
because of going to extremes in religion."
Really, the Ummah is in pressing need to adopt a moderate and balanced
approach in all matters, without being negligent or careless, and
without exaggerating or going to extremes, but rather being moderate
as Allah Almighty Says )what means(:}And thus We Have Made you a just
community that you will be witnesses over the people and the Messenger
will be a witness over you.{]Quran 2: 143[
Unity of history and objectives:
When the Muslim individual lives the memory of Hajj or performs it in
its real sense, he records his name as one of a great caravan that
responded to the call of the Messengers, May Allah Exalt their
mention, and obeyed the Lord of the worlds. This caravan has been led
by the Prophets and Messengers from Ibraaheem )Abraham( and those who
came before and after him: Nooh )Noah(, Ismaa'eel )Ishmael(, Is-haaq
)Isac(, Moosa )Moses( 'Eesa )Jesus( and Muhammad, May Allah Exalt
their mention.
Every Muslim should know that he is not the first to experience such
matters, but rather there were many before him such as the prophets,
messengers, guided leaders and believing followers who underwent the
same difficulties and experienced the same situations and obstacles.
However, they endured and showed patience towards them. Therefore,
they were rewarded greatly in the worldly life and the Hereafter. They
came to have the upper hand over their enemies and their voices
recited the Talbiyah of Hajj loudly, although many of them lived at a
time in which they could not approach the House or even pray in it,
not to mention performing Hajj or 'Umrah.
When one remembers this, his heart will feel reassured and his feet
will stand firm on this way. Actually, we are in dire need of this
form of standing firm in the time of strangeness and alienation, and
of knowing that the prosperous end will be for you as what happened
with the believers who were before you. Allah Almighty Says )what
means(:}And those who disbelieved said to their messengers, "We will
surely drive you out of our land, or you must return to our religion."
So their Lord Inspired to them, "We Will surely Destroy the
wrongdoers. And We will surely cause you to dwell in the land after
them. That is for he who fears My position and fears My
threat."{]Ibraaheem 14: 13-14[
Hajj still has greater wisdom than that, such as learning humility,
remembering the Hereafter, renewing faith through seeing the places of
worship and destinations of invitation. What we have mentioned is just
a drop in the ocean. Whoever contemplates the matter thoughtfully will
surely learn many other lessons. That is because Allah Almighty Says
)what means(:}That they may witness benefits for themselves.{]Quran
22: 28[