Discover Islam, - Muslims: Pioneers of pharmacology

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Muslim pharmacy )Saydalah( as a profession and a separate entity from medicine was recognised by the beginning of the ninth century. This century not only saw the founding and increase in the number of privately owned pharmacy shops inBaghdadand its vicinity, but in other Muslim cities as well. Many of the pharmacists who managed them were skilled in the apothecary's art and quite knowledgeable in the compounding, storing, and preserving of drugs.
State-sponsored hospitals also had their own dispensaries attached to manufacturing laboratories where syrups, electuaries, ointments, and other pharmaceutical preparations were prepared on a relatively large scale. The pharmacists and their shops were periodically inspected by a government appointed official, 'Al-Muhtasib', and his aides. These officials were to check the accuracy in weights and measures as well as the purity of the drugs used. Such supervision was intended to prevent the use of deteriorating compounded drugs and syrups, and to safeguard the public.
This early rise and development of professional pharmacy in Islam - over four centuries before such development took place inEurope- was the result of three major occurrences: the great increase in the demand for drugs and their availability on the market, professional maturity, and the outgrowth of intellectual responsibility by qualified pharmacists.
The ninth century in Muslim lands witnessed the richest period thus far in literary productivity insofar as pharmacy and the healing arts were concerned. This prolific intellectual activity paved the way for still a greater harvest in the succeeding four centuries of both high and mediocre calibre authorship. For pharmacy, manuals on materia medica and for instructing the pharmacist concerning the work and management of his shop were circulating in increasing numbers. A few authors and their important works will be briefly discussed and evaluated.
Abu Hasan At-Tabari:
One of the contributors to Muslim Pharmacy was Abu Hasan 'Ali At-Tabari. He was born in 808. At about thirty years of age, he was summoned toSamarraby Caliph al-Mu'tasim )833-842(, where he served as a statesman and a physician. At-Tabari wrote several medical books, the most famous of which is his Paradise of Wisdom, completed in 850. It contains discussions on the nature of man, cosmology, embryology, temperaments, psychotherapy, hygiene, diet, and diseases - acute and chronic - and their treatment, medical anecdotes, and abstracts and quotations from Indian source material. In addition, the book contains several chapters on materia medica, cereals, diets, utilities and therapeutic uses of animal and bird organs, and of drugs and methods of their preparation.
At-Tabari urged that the therapeutic value of each drug be utilised in accordance with the particular case, and the practitioner should always choose the best of samples. He explained that the finest types of samples come from various places: black myrobalan comes fromKabul; clover dodder from Crete; aloes from Socotra; and aromatic spices fromIndia.
He was also precise in describing his therapeutics. He said, 'I have tried a very useful remedy for the swelling of the stomach; the juices of the liverwort )water hemp( and the absinthium after being boiled on fire and strained to be taken for several days. Also, powdered seeds of celery )marsh parsley( mixed with giant fennel made into troches and taken with a suitable liquid, release the wind in the stomach, joints and back )arthritis(.'
To strengthen the stomach and to insure good health he prescribed 'black myrobalan powdered in butter, mixed with dissolved plant sugar extracted from liquorice and this remedy should be taken daily.' For storage purposes he recommended glass or ceramic vessels for liquid )wet( drugs; special small jars for eye liquid salves; lead containers for fatty substances. For the treatment of ulcerated wounds, he prescribed an ointment made of juniper-gum, fat, butter, and pitch. In addition, he warned that one Mithqaal )about 4 grams( of opium or henbane causes sleep and also death.
The first medical formulary to be written in Arabic is Al-Aqrabadhin by Saboor bin Sahl, who died in 869 AH. In it, he gave medical recipes stating the methods and techniques of compounding these remedies, their pharmacological actions, the dosages given of each, and the means of administration. The formulas are organised in accordance with their types of preparations into which they fit, whether tablets, powders, ointments, electuaries or syrups. Each class of pharmaceutical preparation is represented along with a variety of recipes made in a specific form; they vary, however, in the ingredients used and their recommended uses and therapeutic effects. Many of these recipes and their pharmaceutical forms are remindful of similar formulas given in ancient documents from the Middle East and the Greco-Roman civilisations. What is unique is the organization of Saboor's formulary-type compendium purposely written as a guidebook for pharmacists, whether in their own private drugstores or in hospital pharmacies.
Hunayn bin Is'haaq:
He was an Arab scholar who died in 873 AH. His translations of Plato, Aristotle, Galen, Hippocrates, and the Neoplatonists made accessible to Arab philosophers and scientists the significant sources of Greek thought and culture.
Hunayn was a Nestorian Christian who studied medicine in Baghdad and became well versed in ancient Greek. He was appointed by Caliph Al-Mutawakkil to the post of chief physician to the court, a position that he held for the rest of his life. He travelled to Syria, Palestine, and Egypt to gather ancient Greek manuscripts. From his translators' school in Baghdad, he and his students transmitted Arabic and )more frequently( Syriac versions of the classical Greek texts throughout the Islamic world. Especially important are his translations of Galen, most of the original Greek manuscripts of which are lost.
Hunayn's book of the Ten Treatises on the Eye was completed in 860 AH. After finishing the ninth treatise, the author felt the need for a closing treatise to be devoted to compounded drugs for eye medication. He extracted some recipes from earlier treatises and added more prescriptions recommended by Greek authors.
As one obvious example of the uses and therapeutic values of using compounded drugs, Hunayn gave that of the theriac - the universal antidote against poisoning. Hunayn, who knew Greek, defined the Greek word theriac as an animal that bites or snaps. Since these antidotes were used against animal bites, the word eventually was applied to all antidotes, especially when snake flesh was incorporated.
Hunayn corrected the translation in Arabic of the major part of Dioscorides', Materia Medica, undertaken by his associate Istifaan bin Basil )about mid ninth century( in Baghdad. Due to the influence of this work, several books of materia medica were written in Arabic. Dioscorides definitely influenced the writing and direction of Sabur's formulary, which has been mentioned earlier.
Hunayn’s Herbal Treatise established the basis for Arabic pharmacology, therapy, and medical botany. It also provided a description of the physical properties of drugs, types, and means of testing their purity, and usefulness. As a result, Muslim pharmacology advanced beyond the Greco-Roman contribution. In turn, this helped and influenced a similar development in Europe through the Renaissance.

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Discover Islam, - Muslims laid the foundation of physical science

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It is an undeniable historical fact that before the advent of Islam, the pursuit of Science was condemned as heresy. One does not have to go far to seek the reason for this. At that time, most people could not think in the abstract and they looked upon the elements of Nature )the subject that Science concerns itself with( as sacred objects, possessing supernatural powers. They made idols symbolizing different elements and worshipped them as gods and goddesses, either for protection from evil or for attainment of certain objects. It was in this way that a pantheon was created and the sun, moon, stars, air, water, animals, and even trees and stones, were deified and adored.
It was not unnatural that in such circumstances, any deviation from the prevailing belief in their sanctity should have been branded as sacrilege, and any attempt at a critical examination of their potentiality, for good or evil, stigmatized as profanity. Thus, all that was useful in the heavens and the earth remained altogether unexplored, and for thousands of years man did not realise the sublime utility of the forces of Nature. It was reserved for the untutored son of the desert to open man's eye to the wonderland of Nature by bringing down her elements from the high pedestal of divinity on which they had been placed, to the position of servants of mankind.
The subservience of natural elements to man
The Quran says )what means(:
“And He has made subservient to you the night and the day and the sun and moon and the stars are made subservient by His commandment; most surely there are signs in this for people to ponder...”]Quran 16:12[
Thus were the gods of the pre-Islamic people reduced by one stroke to the status of man's servants. For the first time in the history of the world, the Holy Quran declared in unmistakable language that the main purpose for which all objects -- from the mightiest sun to the most insignificant atom -- were created was to minister to man's needs. Everything in the Universe being intended for his use, man has been commanded to use his faculties to investigate their intrinsic properties -- in other words, to cultivate every branch of Science in order to discover the Divine that designed him and the world around him.
In the Quran, man was declared the vicegerent on earth by the Lord of the Universe and everything in it was subservient to him. Thus, the Quran gave a tremendous impetus to the development of scientific research. In fact, the foundation of modern Science was thus laid by acquainting man with the real nature of the forces and laws of Nature and by teaching him how to harness them for the service of human beings.
The initiation of the conquest of Nature leading to the utilisation of its forces for the benefit of humanity is, indeed, one of the greatest blessings Islam has conferred upon mankind.
The Quran clearly indicated the way in which to reduce Nature to human service by contemplation and observation of four kinds, viz., Tafaqquh, Tadabbur, Tafakkur and Ta’aqqul )learning, pondering, contemplation, and meditation(. By means of Tafaqquh )learning( a correct idea of things and their different features can be arrived at; by Tadabbur )pondering( the knowledge of how to utilize them properly can be acquired, Tafakkur )contemplation( teaches the ways by which things have come into existence while Ta'aqqul )meditation( gives the knowledge which enables man to make the right use of different things in everyday life.
It was the meditations indicated by Tafakkur and Ta'aqqul that actuated different kinds of scientific research among the early Muslims. This is how the Quran placed in the hands of man the key to the treasures of Nature and Divine Revelation came to show him the way to material progress. Everything in the Universe having been intended for the use of man, it was a virtuous act for him to conduct research into the realms of Nature in order to discover the utility of its various components. Thus the first principle of progress — the exploration and subsequent utilization of the forces of Nature to serve the needs of mankind and help him realize the Greatness of his Creator.

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Discover Islam, - Contribution of Islam to the world's civilization

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Let us remember our great and glorious heritage by briefly surveying what Islam has already contributed to the world's civilization, education, culture and to scientific development.
Unlike Christianity where Religion and Science are two separate elements, the study of Science has always been compatible with Islam.
Many young Muslims are discouraged when they see the poor standard of living of Muslims throughout the world and their limited opportunities. They also know the undeveloped status of technology within the Muslim countries in comparison with the West. From these observations, they immediately leap to the conclusion that the Muslim countries are ‘backward’, because Islam cannot adapt itself to the changing conditions; cannot assimilate new knowledge. Some even go so far as to say that Islam is actually against progress and against scientific advancement. However, those Muslims who have studied the later part of Islamic history will know that this is a complete fallacy and misconception.
Let us do a brief review of the contribution of Islam to civilization as we know it.
Trigonometry, Sine, Tangent, Co-Tangent
The Arabs developed these functions in trigonometry and Ibn Moosaa's workHisaab-Al Jab-Wal Muqaabala)The Calculation of Integration and Equation( presented 800 examples in the 8thcentury CE. His work was translated from Arabic into Latin and until the 16th century CE, it wasEurope's main textbook on the subject.
Algebra and Geometry
Muhammad bin Moosaa Al-Khawaarizmi is considered to be one of the founders of Algebra. The word ‘Algorithm’ or 'Algorizm' is a corruption of his name or the name of the town Khwaarizm )Kheva(, in what is now Uzbekistan, where he wasborn. He adopted the use of ‘cipher’ )zero(, that was devised in India some centuries earlier, a numeral of fundamental importance, leading up to the so-called arithmetic of positions and the decimal system. The very word ‘zero’ is a derivative of the Arabic ‘sifr’ or ‘cipher’. His pioneering work on the system of numerals is well known as "Algorithm," or "Algorizm." In addition to introducing the Arabic numerals, he developed several arithmetical procedures, including operations on fractions.
Another great mathematician was Omar Khayyaam, who offered to the world geometric and algebraic solutions of the second degree. Naseeruddeen wrote the treatise on quadrilateral trigonometry, as well as plain and spherical geometry.
Physics and Chemistry
Kamaaluddeen examined the refraction of sunlight in raindrops and offered an explanation of the genesis of primary and secondary rainbows. The story of the invention of the pendulum and the presentation of a water clock to Emperor Charlemagne by Haaroon Ar-Rasheed is well known.
The great historian Gibbons wrote in hisDecline and Fall of the Roman Empire)Volume 5( that the science of chemistry owes its origin and improvements to the Muslims.
Science of Mechanics
The development of the science of mechanics in Islam is an act of genius. Moosaa bin Shaakir described one hundred pieces of mechanical equipment in his book of artifices. Other outstanding Muslim treatises includedAl Kitaab Fi Ma`rifat Al-Hiya Al-Handasiyyah)The Book of the Knowledge of Ingenious Geometrical Contrivances( by Abul Fiaz bin Al Raz andAl Kitaab Meezanal-Hikmah)The Book of Balance and Wisdom( by Al-Khazini. He also did work on accurate weighing, and determination of the specific gravity of substances.
Camera Obscura
In the field of optics, Camera Obscura was invented by Ibn Haytham in 1038 CE.
Theory of Relativity
Qaadhi Abu Bakr had developed the theory of relativity in the 8thcentury CE in terms of time and space by means of mathematical equations and astrophysics. Imagine, Einstein was not even born in the Western world, who propounded the same theory of relativity much later in the 20thcentury CE.
Geography
As far as geography was concerned, Muslim scientists established that the world was round in the 9thcentury CE, and the first map of the globe was made during the Caliphate of Ma’moon.
Paper Making
This was one of the earliest skills attained by the Muslims. As early as the 8thcentury CE, high quality paper was being manufactured in Samarqand.Egyptwas known to have its first paper mill in the year 900 CE. The earliest Arabic manuscript written on paper that has been discovered is theGhareeb Al Hadeethby Abu ‘Ubayed, dated 837 CE. It can be seen inHollandpreserved in the library at theUniversityofLeyden.
Advances in Industry
Under Islamic rule,Spainwas an industrial center. It was one of the wealthiest and most thickly populated of the European countries. Muslims were leading in weaving wool, producing silk, pottery, jewelry, leather and perfume industry. In the Middle Ages, world trade was commanded by Muslims andBaghdad, Bukhaara and Samarqand remained centers for world fairs until the 16thcentury CE. The Bayt Al-Hikmah atCairocontained two million books, the library atTripolicontained some three million, but this library was burned down by the Christians during the first Crusade.
Miracles of the Quran
Let us consider the hundreds of scientific facts mentioned in the Holy Quran. For example, the fact that the earth was previously a part of the sun and after its separation, it became a habitable place for humankind, as mentioned in chapter 21, verse 30. That matter is made up of sub-atomic particles )chapter 10, verse 61(. That the embryo in the mother's womb in enclosed by three epithelial coverings )chapter 39, verse 6(. That each human being has a unique fingerprint )chapter 75, verse 4( etc. There are thousands of other scientific facts in the Holy Quran.
Regrettably, today the West is at its peak and we have lagged behind so far. However, our downfall is not due to Islam, as the West would like us to believe, but due to our sheer neglect of Islamic principles. We must realize that Islam is undeniably the most progressive religion, which is in fact a way of life with a very wide scope.
Of course, life is a very hard struggle. However, struggle is an inbuilt instinct of human nature. Struggle is a way but not an accomplishment or attainment in itself. We should make an effort and struggle but at the same time make Du'aa. This is where Tawakkul, i.e. trust in Allaah comes because destiny supersedes thought. We must trust in Allaah for our betterment, because if success depended merely upon one’s personal struggle, then nobody in the world would be unsuccessful. Furthermore, struggle is itself predestined by Allaah. Man should do his best, then leave the rest to Allaah, Most High.

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Dought & clear, - She is asking about myths concerning getting married between the two Eids, and what is wrong with that according to sharee’ah

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my question is that here in Asia most of the people think that if we got marry between two eids i mean EID-UL-FITAR till EID-UL-AZHA so it is very bad and one of the pair mean birde or groom die because it is not good to marry between two EIDS ,i want to know whether it is right or wrong from Islamic point of view ,i know that there are large numbers of question asked but you can also post the answer to this question in your site it will be very useful InshAllahtala because many people even being muslim have very strong believe that these things are true as far as i know there is nothing in Islam like this and it is wrong but i want more detail so that i could tell other people also you wrote that one should not fast or pray specially beacause it is 15 Shaban and the sawab will be greater but if it is his rotine than he or she can ,here where i am livin muslims are very careful about this day and they fast and pray for Almighty Allah j and tell that it is very sawab and it is in Ahadis sharif and when i told them about your article they told me that no there are Ahadis sharif about the greatness of this day.
Praise be to Allaah.
With regard to the first question:
The answer is in two parts. Firstly, the belief mentioned in the question is not correct; it is a kind of innovation and misguidance which has no basis in sharee’ah, and is not indicated by the Qur’aan or Sunnah.
Secondly, this belief goes against the sharee’ah of Islam in several ways:
(i) The belief that someone will die during this period. It is not permissible to believe this because death and life are in the hand of Allaah and the appointed time of man’s death is something of which Allaah has kept the knowledge to Himself. No one among mankind knows when he will die. This is something which Allaah has not told to any of His creation. Hence the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) said, in the hadeeth whose authenticity is agreed upon which was narrated from Abu Hurayrah (may Allaah be pleased with him), in the lengthy hadeeth of Jibreel: “There are five things which no one knows except Allaah.” Then he recited the verse (interpretation of the meaning):
“Verily, Allaah, with Him (Alone) is the knowledge of the Hour, He sends down the rain, and knows that which is in the wombs. No person knows what he will earn tomorrow, and no person knows in what land he will die. Verily, Allaah is All-Knower, All-Aware (of things”
[Luqmaan 31:34]
(Narrated by al-Bukhaari, 48; Muslim, 10)
Claiming that marrying during this period will lead to death is a claim to have knowledge of the unseen, and everyone who claims to have knowledge of the unseen is lying. Hence the leaders of falsehood are those who claim to have some knowledge of the unseen.
(ii) This also undermines faith, because it implies a lack of belief in the Divine will and decree (al-qadaa’ wa’l-qadar). Hence the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) taught Ibn ‘Abbaas, when he was a boy, “Know that if the nation were to gather together to benefit you in any way, they would not be able to benefit you in any way except that which Allaah had decreed for you, and if they were to gather together to do you harm in any way, they would not be able to harm you except that which Allaah had decreed for you. The pens have been lifted and the pages have dried.” (Narrated by al-Tirmidhi,Sifat al-Qiyaamah, 2440; classed as saheeh by al-Albaani inSaheeh Sunan al-Tirmidhi, no. 2043). It was narrated that ‘Abd-Allaah ibn ‘Amr ibn al-‘Aas said: “I heard the Messenger of Allaah (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) say, ‘Allaah decreed the fate of His creatures fifty thousand years before He created the heavens and the earth.’” (Narrated by Muslim,al-Qadar, 4797)
(iii) It also undermines Tawheed and its perfection, because it involves regarding something as an evil omen and pessimism. It says in the hadeeth narrated from Abu Hurayrah (may Allaah be pleased with him) that the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) said: “There is no ‘adwaa [contagion, transmission of infectious disease without the permission of Allaah], no tiyarah [superstitious belief in bird omens], no haamah [refers to a Jaahili Arab tradition described variously as: a worm which infests the grave of a murder victim until he is avenged; an owl; or the bones of a dead person turned into a bird that could fly], and no Safar [the month of Safar was regarded as “unlucky” during the Jaahiliyyah].”
(Narrated by al-Bukhaari,al-Tibb, 5316)
Tatayyur (superstitious belief in bad omens) means pessimism. It was narrated in the hadeeth of Ibn Mas’ood that the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) said: “Tiyarah (believing in evil omens) is a kind of shirk.”
(Narrated by al-Tirmidhi,al-Siyar, 1539; classed as saheeh by al-Albaani inSaheeh al-Tirmidhi, no. 1314)
It should be noted that superstitious belief in bad omens contradicts Tawheed in two ways:
Firstly, superstitious belief prevents one from putting one’s trust in Allaah and makes one depend on someone other than Him.
Secondly, it causes people to depend on things that have no basis in reality, for there is no connection between getting married in this month and whatever may happen subsequently. Undoubtedly this undermines Tawheed, because Tawheed means worship and seeking help. Allaah says (interpretation of the meaning):
“You (Alone) we worship, and You (Alone) we ask for help (for each and everything).”[al-Faatihah 1:5]
and:
“So worship Him (O Muhammad) and put your trust in Him”
[Hood 11:123]
Hence ‘Aa’ishah (may Allaah be pleased with her) used to say that the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) married her in Shawwaal and consummated the marriage with her in Shawwaal and she was the dearest and most beloved of his wives to him. The Arabs used to regard this month as inauspicious and they used to say that if a person got married in Shawwaal, the marriage would not succeed, but this is not true.
In the case of one who believes in evil omens, one of two things must apply:
Either he will give up, respond to the “bad omen”, and not take action, which is the worst kind of superstition and pessimism, or he will go ahead, but he will be anxious and worried, fearing that he will be affected by this bad omen. This is less serious, but both detract from Tawheed and adversely affect people. (Seeal-Qawl al-Mufeedby Ibn ‘Uthaymeen, part 2, p. 77-78)
In practical terms, we see that the saheeh Sunnah of the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) prove that this myth is false, for the best of mankind, Muhammad (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him), got married to the most beloved of people to him, namely ‘Aa’ishah (may Allaah be pleased with her), and his marriage to her took place between the two Eids, and she was one of the happiest of people with him. Indeed, she herself refuted this jaahili claim by saying, “The Messenger of Allaah (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) married me in Shawwaal and he consummated the marriage with me in Shawwaal, and which of the wives of the Messenger of Allaah (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) was dearer to him than me?”
‘Urwah ibn al-Zubayr said: ‘Aa’ishah used to like marriages to be consummated in Shawwaal. (Narrated by Muslim, 1423)
Al-Nawawi said:
This shows that it is mustahabb to arrange marriages, get married and consummate marriages in Shawwaal. Our companions stated that it is mustahabb, and they quoted this hadeeth as evidence. By saying this, ‘Aa’ishah intended to refute the practice and belief of the jaahiliyyah. What some of the common people believe nowadays, that it is disliked to arrange marriages, get married and consummate marriages in Shawwaal, is false and has no basis. This is one of the leftovers of the jaahiliyyah. They used to regard that as inauspicious because of the fact that the name Shawwaal carries connotations of lifting.
Sharh Muslim, 9/209
Ibn al-Qayyim said:
‘Aa’ishah the Mother of the Believers (may Allaah be pleased with her) regarded it as mustahabb for a woman to be married or the marriage to be consummated with her in Shawwaal. She said, “The Messenger of Allaah (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) only married me in Shawwaal, and which of his wives was more beloved to him than me?” even though the people regarded marriage in Shawwaal as inauspicious This is something which the believers who truly put their trust in Allaah and whose hearts truly find contentment with their Lord should resolve to do, those who know that what Allaah wills will happen and what He does not will will not happen, and that nothing will befall them except that which Allaah has decreed, and that no calamity will befall them except that which was already written in the Book before they were created, who know that they will inevitably come to that which has been decreed for them, which must inevitably happen to them. If they are superstitious, this will not ward off the decree from them, rather their superstition will be one of the main reasons why what they fear of the Divine will and decree will come to them. Thus their fear will be the means of bringing what they fear upon them. So according to the will and decree of Allaah, their weakness of faith will be the cause of what they dislike happening to them, so their bad omen is with themselves. But those who put their trust in Allaah, who delegate their affairs to Him, who know Him and His commands, their souls are more noble than that and their interests more sublime. Their trust in Allaah and their positive thoughts of Him give them power, strength and protection against the things which people regard as evil omens and about which they are pessimistic. They know that there is no omen [or no birds] except His, no good except His, there is no god but Him, and that the Creation and Command are His, the Lord of the Worlds.
Miftaah Daar al-Sa’aadah, 2/261

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