Biology by Muslims

The Muslim scientists made considerable progress in biology especially
in botany, and developed horticulture to a high degree of perfection.
They paid greater attention to botany in comparison to zoology. Botany
reached its zenith in Spain.
Zoology
In zoology the study of the horse was developed almost to the tank of
a science.Abu Ubaidah(728-825 A. D.) who wrote more than 100 books,
devoted more than fifty books to the study of the horse.
Al-Jahiz
Al-Jahiz, who flourished inBasrais reputed to be one of thegreatest
zoologiststhe Muslim world has produced. His influence in the subject
may be traced to 'the Persian'Al-Qazwini' and the Egyptian
'Al-Damiri'. His book 'Kitab al Haywan' (book ori animals) contains
gems of latertheories of evolution,adaptationandanimal psychology. He
was the first to note changes in bird life through migrations. He
described the method of obtaining 'ammonia from animal offal by dry
distilling.'
Al-Damiri
Al-Damiri, who died in 1405 in Cairo and who was influenced by
Al-Jahiz is the greatest Arab zoologist. His bookHayat Haywarz(Life of
animal) is the most important Muslim work in zoology. It is an
encyclopedia on animal life containing a mine of information on the
subject. It contains the history of animals and preceded Buffoon by
700 years.
Al Masudi
Al-Masudi, has given the rudiments of the theory of evolution in his
well known work Meadows of gold. Another of his worksKitab al-Tanbih
wal Ishraqadvances his views on evolution namely from mineral to
plant, from plant to animal and from animal to man.
Botany
In botany,Spanish Muslimsmade the greatest contribution, and some of
them are known as thegreatest botanistsof mediaeval times. They were
keen observers and discovered sexual difference between such plants as
palms and hemps. They roamed about on sea shores, on mountains and in
distant lands in quest of rare botanical herbs.
Theyclassified plantsinto those that grow from seeds, those that grow
from cuttings and those that grow of their own accord, i.e., wild
growth. The Spanish Muslims advanced in botany far beyond the state in
which "it had been left by Discords and augmented the herbology of the
Greeks by the addition of 2,000 plants" Regular botanical gardens
existed inCordova, Baghdad, Cairoand Fez for teaching and experimental
purposes. Some of these were the finest in the world.
The Cordovan physician,Al-Ghafiqi(D. 1165) was a renowned botanist,
who collected plants in Spain and Africa, and described them most
accurately. According to G. Sarton he was "the greatest expert of his
time on simples. His description of plants was the most precise ever
made in Islam; he gave the names of each in Arabic, Latin and Berber".
His outstanding workAl Adwiyah al Mufradahdealing with simples was
later appropriated by Ibn Baytar."
Abu Zakariya Yahya
Abu Zakariya Yahya Ibn Muhammad Ibn AlAwwan, who flourished at the end
of 12 century in Seville (Spain) was the author of the most important
Islamic treatise on agriculture during the mediaeval times
entitledKitab al Filahah. The book treats more than585plants and deals
with the cultivation of more than50fruit trees. It also discusses
numerousdiseases of plantsand suggests their remedies. The book
presents new observations onproperties of soiland different types of
manures.
Abdullah Ibn Ahmad Ibn Al-Baytar
Abdullah Ibn Ahmad Ibn Al-Baytar, was the greatest botanist and
pharmacist of Spain--in fact the greatest of mediaeval times. He
roamed about in search of plants and collected herbs on the
Mediterranean littoral, from Spain to Syria, described more than1,400
medical drugsand compared them with the records of more than 150
ancient and Arabian authors.
Thecollection of simple drugscomposed by him is the ilaost outstanding
botanical work in Arabic. "This book, in fact is the most important
for the whole period extending from Discords down to the 16th
century." It is an encyclopedic work on the subject. He later entered
into the service of the Ayyubid king, Al-Malik, as his chief herbalist
in Cairo. From there he traveled through Syria and Asia Minor, and
died in Damascus.
One of his worksAl-Mughani-fi al Adwiyah al Mufradahdeals with
medicine. The otherAl Jami Ji al Adwiyah al Mufradahis a very valuable
book containing simple remedies regarding animal, vegetable and
mineral matters which has been described above. It deals also with200
novel plantswhich were not known up to that time.
Other Notable Botanists
Abul Abbàs Al-Nabatialso wandered along the African Coast from Spain
to Arabia in search of herbs and plants. He discovered some rare
plants on the shore of Red Sea. Another botanistIbn Sauri, was
accompanied by an artist during his travels in Syria, who made
sketches of the plants which they found.Ibn Wahshiya, wrote his
celebrated work al-Filahah al-Nabatiyah containing valuable
information about :animals and plants.
Many Cosmographical encyclopedias have been written by Arabs and
Persians, which contain sections on animals, plants and stones, of
which the best known is that ofZakariya al-Kaiwini, who died in 1283
A. D.Al-Dinawari wrote an excellent 'book of plants' andal-Bakrihas
written a book describing in detail the 'Plants of Andalusia'
Ibn Maskwaih, a contemporary ofAl-Beruni, advanced a definite theory
about evolution. According to him plant life at its lowest stage of
evolution does not need any seed for its birth and growth. Nor does it
perpetuate its species by means of the seed.
The great advancement of botanical science in Spain led to the
development of agriculture and horticulture on a grand scale.
"Horticulture improvements" says G. Sarton, "constituted the finest
legacies of Islam, and the gardens of Spain proclaim to this clay one
of the noblest virtues of her Muslim conquerors- The development of
agriculture was one of theglories of Muslim Spain."

Islamic Calendar

In theHoly Quranwe read:
"They ask thee about the new moons. Say, These are means for measuring
time for people's affairs and for the Pilgrimage" (Holy Quran, Ch. 2
V. 190)
Islam has made use of both thelunar and solar systemof measuring
times. Where worship is to be performed in different parts of the day
the solar system of reckoning time is used as in thefive daily
Prayers(see Basics about Prayers) or for the beginning and breaking of
thefast, and where worship is to be completed within a particular
month or part thereof, the lunar system is used, as in the
determination of the month or part thereof, the lunar system is used,
as in the determination of the month of fasting or fixing the time
ofHajj(see Hajj Basics) or other festivals.
Tocalculate conversionsfrom one calendar year to the other the
following formula is used:
G = H - ( (3 * H) / 100 ) + 622
H = G + ( ( G - 622) / 32 ) - 622
Where G = Gregorian year (AD)
H = Hijra year (AH)
Thus 2000 AD is 1421 AH
Islamic calendar consists oftwelve lunar months. Each month may be
of29 or 30 daysdepending on the sighting of the new moon. An lunar
year has, on average,355days. This is 10 days less than the solar
year. Hence an Islamic year is moved ahead 10 days each year in solar
calendar year.
Following are the names of the Islamic months:
1.Muharram ul Haram
2.Safar
3.Rabi-ul-Awwal
4.Rab-ul-Akhir
5.Jamadi-ul-Awwal
6.Jamadi-ul-Akhir
7.Rajab
8.Sha'aban
9.Ramadhan
10.Shawwal
11.Dhul Qadah
12.Dhul Hijja
The Holy Quran states:
"The number of months with Allah has been twelve months by Allah's
ordinance since the day He created the heavens and the earth. Of these
four are known as sacred" (Holy Quran)
Muharram,Rajab,Dhul QadahandDhul Hijjaare considered to be sacred
months. Fighting during these sacred months is considered to be a sin.

Islam, A World Civilization

"Thus We have appointed you a middle nation, that you may be witnesses
upon mankind."
(Quran,Surah 2: Verse 143)
General Characteristics of Islamic Civilization
Islam was destined to become aworld religionand to create a
civilization which stretched from one end of the globe to the other.
Already during the early Muslim caliphates, first the Arabs, then the
Persians and later the Turks set about to create classical Islamic
civilization. Later, in the 13th century, both Africa and India became
great centers of Islamic civilization and soon thereafter Muslim
kingdoms were established in the Malay-Indonesian world while Chinese
Muslims flourished throughout China.
Global religion
Islam is areligion for all peoplefrom whatever race or background they
might be. That is why Islamic civilization is based on a unity which
stands completely against any racial or ethnic discrimination. Such
major racial and ethnic groups as the Arabs, Persians, Turks,
Africans, Indians, Chinese and Malays in addition to numerous smaller
units embraced Islam and contributed to the building of Islamic
civilization.
Moreover, Islam wasnot opposedto learning from the earlier
civilizations and incorporating their science, learning, and culture
into its own world view, as long as they did not oppose the principles
of Islam. Each ethnic and racial group which embraced Islam made its
contribution to the one Islamic civilization to which everyone
belonged. The sense of brotherhood and sisterhood was so much
emphasized that it overcame all local attachments to a particular
tribe, race, or language--all of which became subservient to the
universal brotherhood and sisterhood of Islam. The global civilization
thus created by Islam permitted people of diverse ethnic backgrounds
to work together in cultivating various arts and sciences.
Although the civilization was profoundly Islamic, even non-Muslim
"people of the book" participated in the intellectual activity whose
fruits belonged to everyone. The scientific climate was reminiscent of
the present situation in America where scientists and men and women of
learning from all over the world are active in the advancement of
knowledge which belongs to everyone. The global civilization created
by Islam also succeeded in activating the mind and thought of the
people who entered its fold.
As aresult of Islam, the nomadicArabsbecame torch-bearers of science
and learning. ThePersianswho had created a great civilization before
the rise of Islam nevertheless produced much more science and learning
in the Islamic period than before. The same can be said of theTurksand
other peoples who embraced Islam.
The religion of Islam was itself responsible not only for thecreation
of a world civilizationin which people of many different ethnic
backgrounds participated, but it played a central role in developing
intellectual and cultural life on a scale not seen before. For
someeight hundred yearsArabic remained the major intellectual and
scientific language of the world. During the centuries following the
rise of Islam, Muslim dynasties ruling in various parts of the Islamic
world bore witness to the flowering of Islamic culture and thought.
In fact this tradition of intellectual activity was eclipsed only at
the beginning of modern times as a result of the weakening of faith
among Muslims combined with external domination. And today this
activity has begun anew in many parts of the Islamic world now that
the Muslims have regained their political independence.
A Brief History of Islam, The Rightly Guided Caliphs
Upon the death of theProphet(PBUH),Abu Bakr, the friend of the Prophet
and the first adult male to embrace Islam, becamecaliph. Abu Bakr
ruled for two years to be succeeded by'Umarwho was caliph for a decade
and during whose rule Islam spread extensively east and west
conquering the Persian empire, Syria and Egypt. It was 'Umar who
marched on foot at the end of the Muslim army into Jerusalem and
ordered the protection of Christian sites. 'Umar also established the
first public treasury and a sophisticated financial administration. He
established many of the basic practices of Islamic government. 'Umar
was succeeded by'Uthmanwho ruled for some twelve years during which
time the Islamic expansion continued. He is also known as the caliph
who had the definitive text of theNoble Qurancopied and sent to the
four corners of the Islamic world. He was in turn succeeded by'Aliwho
is known to this day for his eloquent sermons and letters, and also
for his bravery. With his death the rule of the "rightly guided"
caliphs, who hold a special place of respect in the hearts of Muslims,
came to an end.
The Caliphates
Umayyad
The Umayyad caliphate established in661was to last for about a
century. During this time Damascus became the capital of an Islamic
world which stretched from the western borders of China to southern
France. Not only did the Islamic conquests continue during this period
through North Africa to Spain and France in the West and to Sind,
Central Asia and Transoxiana in the East, but the basic social and
legal institutions of the newly founded Islamic world were
established.
Abbasids
The Abbasids, who succeeded the Umayyads, shifted the capital to
Baghdad which soon developed into an incomparable center of learning
and culture as well as the administrative and political heart of a
vast world. They ruled for over500 yearsbut gradually their power
waned and they remained only symbolic rulers bestowing legitimacy upon
various sultans and princes who wielded actual military power.
The Abbasid caliphate was finally abolished when Hulagu, the Mongol
ruler, captured Baghdad in 1258 AD, destroying much of the city
including its incomparable libraries. While the Abbasids ruled in
Baghdad, a number of powerful dynasties such as
theFatimids,AyyubidsandMamluksheld power in Egypt, Syria and
Palestine.
The most important event in this area as far as the relation between
Islam and the Western world was concerned was the series of Crusades
declared by the Pope and espoused by various European kings. The
purpose, although political, was outwardly to recapture the Holy Land
and especially Jerusalem for Christianity. Although there was at the
beginning some success and local European rule was set up in parts of
Syria and Palestine, Muslims finally prevailed and in 1187 AD,Saladin,
the great Muslim leader, recaptured Jerusalem and defeated the
Crusaders.
North Africa and Spain
When the Abbasids captured Damascus, one of the Umayyad princes
escaped and made the long journey from there to Spain to found Umayyad
rule there, thus beginning the golden age of Islam in Spain. Cordoba
was established as the capital and soon became Europe's greatest city
not only in population but from the point of view of its cultural and
intellectual life. The Umayyads ruled over two centuries until they
weakened and were replaced by local rulers.
Meanwhile in North Africa, various local dynasties held sway until two
powerful Berber dynasties succeeded in uniting much of North Africa
and also Spain in the 12th and 13th centuries. After them this area
was ruled once again by local dynasties such as the Sharifids of
Morocco who still rule in that country. As for Spain itself, Muslim
power continued to wane until the last Muslim dynasty was defeated in
Granada in 1492 AD thus bringing nearlyeight hundred yearsof Muslim
rule in Spain to an end.
Islamic History after the Mongol Invasion
The Mongols devastated the eastern lands of Islam and ruled from the
Sinai Desert to India for a century. But they soon converted to Islam
and became known as the Il-Khanids. They were in turn succeeded by
Timur and his descendents who made Samarqand their capital and ruled
from 1369 to 1500. The sudden rise of Timur delayed the formation and
expansion of the Ottoman empire but soon the Ottomans became the
dominant power in the Islamic world.
Ottoman Empire
From humble origins the Turks rose to dominate over the whole of
Anatolia and even parts of Europe. In 1453 Mehmet the Conqueror
captured Constantinople and put an end to the Byzantine empire. The
Ottomans conquered much of eastem Europe and nearly the whole of the
Arab world, only Morocco and Mauritania in the West and Yemen,
Hadramaut and parts of the Arabian peninsula remaining beyond their
control.
They reached their zenith of power with Suleyman the Magnificent whose
armies reached Hungary and Austria. From the 17th century onward with
the rise of Westem European powers and later Russia, the power of the
Ottomans began to wane. But they nevertheless remained a force to be
reckoned with until the First World War when they were defeated by the
Westem nations. Soon thereafter Kamal Ataturk gained power in Turkey
and abolished the six centuries of rule of the Ottomans in 1924.
Persia
While the Ottomans were concerned mostly with the westem front of
their empire, to the east in Persia a new dynasty called the Safavids
came to power in 1502. The Safavids established a powerful state of
their own which flourished for over two centuries and became known for
the flowering of the arts. Their capital, Isfahan, became one of the
most beautiful cities with its blue tiled mosques and exquisite
houses.
The Afghan invasion of 1736 put an end to Safavid rule and prepared
the independence of Afghanistan which occured formally in the 19th
century. Persia itself fell into turmoil until Nader Shah, the last
Oriental conqueror, reunited the country and even conquered India. But
the rule of the dynasty established by him was short-lived. The Zand
dynasty soon took over to be overthrown by the Qajars in 1779 who made
Tehran their capital and ruled until 1921 when they were in turn
replaced by the Pahlavis.
India
As for India, Islam entered into the land east of the Indus River
peacefully. Gradually Muslims gained political power beginning in the
early 13th century. But this period which marked the expansion of both
Islam and Islamic culture came to an end with the conquest of much of
India in 1526 by Babur, one of the Timurid princes. He established the
powerful Mogul empire which produced such famous rulers as Akbar,
Jahangir, and Shah Jahan and which lasted, despite the gradual rise of
British power in India, until 1857 when it was officially abolished.
Malaysia and Indonesia
Farther east in the Malay world, Islam began to spread in the 12th
century in northern Sumatra and soon Muslim kingdoms were establishd
in Java, Sumatra and mainland Malaysia. Despite the colonization of
the Malay world, Islam spread in that area covering present day
Indonesia, Malaysia, the southern Phililppines and southern Thailand,
and is still continuing in islands farther east.
Africa
As far as Africa is concerned, Islam entered into East Africa at the
very beginning of the Islamic period but remained confined to the
coast for some time, only the Sudan and Somaliland becoming gradually
both Arabized and Islamized. West Africa felt the presence of Islam
through North African traders who travelled with their camel caravans
south of the Sahara.
By the 14th century there were already Muslim sultanates in such areas
as Mali, and Timbuctu in West Africa and Harar in East Africa had
become seats of Islamic learning. Gradually Islam penetrated both
inland and southward. There also appeared major charismatic figures
who inspired intense resistance against European domination.
The process of the Islamization of Africa did not cease during the
colonial period and continues even today with the result that most
Africans are now Muslims carrying on a tradition which has had
practically as long a history in certain areas of sub-Saharan Africa
as Islam itself.

Hope – the Most Sublime Rank for the Followers

In this article, we will talk about hoping for Allah's mercy. The
believers' relationship with their Lord is characterized both by fear
and hope, such that the former deters them from sins and disobedience,
whereas the latter drives them towards good deeds.
Ibn Al-Qayyim, may Allah have mercy upon him, said:
"Hoping for the reward of Allah is one of the most supreme and
honorable ranks of one who pursues the right path. Allah The Almighty
praises those ]who do that[, when He Says )what means(:}There has
certainly been for you in the Messenger of Allah an excellent pattern
for anyone whose hope is in Allah and the Last Day and ]who[ remembers
Allah often.{]Quran 33:21[ It was also narrated in a Hadeeth Qudsi,
that Allah The Almighty Says: 'O son of Adam, If you supplicate to Me,
expecting My forgiveness, I will forgive you however great or many
your sins may be.' When a person has hope, it means that he or she is
bound and attached to these names of his or her Lord: "The Benevolent,
The Beneficent". The more one knows Allah The Almighty, His names,
attributes and the dominance of His mercy over His wrath, the more his
or her hope increases ]in Him[. Had it not been for hope, the
servitude of the heart and organs ]to Allah[ would have ceased, and
monasteries, churches, synagogues and mosques, where the name of Allah
is frequently mentioned, would have been demolished. If not for the
spirit of hope, ]our[ limbs would not have performed acts of
obedience, and neither would the ships of good deeds have sailed in
the seas of will without its pleasant breeze."
Similarly, the Prophet, sallallaahu 'alayhi wa sallam, said:"If a
believer ]truly[ knew of the punishment of Allah, no one would expect
His Paradise. Equally, were a disbeliever to know of the ]actual[
mercy of Allah, none would despair of His Paradise."'Abdullaah ibn
Mas'ood, may Allah be pleased with him, remarked, "The most
encouraging verse in the Quran is in the Chapter Az-Zumar )The
Groups(; Allah The Almighty Says )what means(,}Say, "O My servants who
have transgressed against themselves ]by sinning[, do not despair of
the mercy of Allah. Indeed, Allah forgives all sins. Indeed, it is He
who is the Forgiving, the Merciful."{]Quran 39:53["
One of those who visited Maalik ibn Anas, may Allah have mercy upon
him, during the night in which he died, asked him, "O Abu 'Abdullaah,
how do you find yourself?" He, may Allah have mercy upon him,
answered, "I do not know what to say to you except that you will soon
see ]aspects[ of the clemency of Allah that you have never expected."
Glory be to Allah The Almighty! If those who turn away from Him only
know how He waits for their return and how Merciful He is to them,
they will long for Him enormously. Indeed, if this is His will towards
such people, how will He be to those who draw near to Him? 'Abdullaah
ibn Al-Mubaarak approached Sufyaan Ath-Thawri, may Allah have mercy
upon them both, on the night of ]standing in[ 'Arafah, and found him
kneeling ]in prayer[, as his eyes overflowed with tears; he asked,
"Who is the worst person in this gathering ]in the plains of
'Arafah[?' Sufyaan Ath-Thawri, may Allah have mercy upon him, replied:
"Whoever thinks that Allah will not forgive their sins ]i.e., of the
people who are present[.'"
On a similar night, Al-Fudhayl ibn 'Iyaadh, may Allah have mercy upon
him, observed people's glorification ]of Allah The Almighty[ and their
crying, so he asked those around him: "If those people went to a man
and requested one-sixth of a dirham from him, would he let them return
empty-handed?" When they replied in the negative, he commented: "By
Allah, pardoning is easier for Allah than ]that[." Therefore, I
implore Allah The Almighty, seeking His forgiveness, knowing fully
that He absolves and forgives; even if people's sins are great, they
are minor in comparison to His mercy.
Hence, a slave should have much hope in Him, especially when he or she
is on the verge of death. Allah The Almighty Says, as narrated in a
Hadeeth: "I am ]to him or her[ as My slave thinks of Me." That is why,
perhaps, when Waathilah ibn Al-Asqa', may Allah be pleased with him,
went to see Yazeed ibn Al-Aswad, may Allah have mercy upon him, as he
lay dying, he asked him, "What is your expectation about Allah?" The
latter replied: "My sins have brought me to the brink of ruin, but I
hope for the mercy of Allah." So, Waathilah, may Allah be pleased with
him, ]happily[ exclaimed "Allah is The Greatest", and then said, "I
heard the Messenger of Allah, sallallaahu 'alayhi wa sallam,
say:'Allah The Almighty Says: 'I am as My slave thinks of Me, so let
him think of Me what he wants'.'"For the same reason, when Sulaymaan
At-Taymi, may Allaah have mercy upon him, was dying, he instructed his
son: "O Mu'tamir, talk to me about exemptions ]in Islam[, so that I
may meet Allah while having good expectations of Him."
Hope prompts one to do good deeds
It is witnessed as a reality in life that many neglect good deeds and
dare to commit evil and sins, claiming that they trust in the mercy
and forgiveness of Allah The Almighty. Undoubtedly, this is a
misunderstanding of the true meaning of hope. The words of Al-Hasan
Al-Basri, may Allah have mercy upon him, are applicable to such people
mentioned above; he says: "There are people whose confidence in
forgiveness diverts them from doing what is moral, so much so that
they die with no virtues. They proclaim: 'we have good expectation of
Allah'. Surely, they are liars, for if they had hope ]in Him[, they
would have done good ]to support their claim[."
Allah The Almighty is indeed the most Forgiving, Ever Merciful;
however, I would like to draw your attention, dear reader, to the
subtle meaning embedded in the verse )which means(:}Indeed, those who
have believed and those who have emigrated and fought in the cause of
Allah - those expect the mercy of Allah. And Allah is Forgiving and
Merciful.{]Quran 2:218[. Contemplate how this verse alludes to these
people hoping for the mercy of Allah The Almighty alongside doing
those great noble deeds.
Dear Muslim, let us, then, do good and repent from our sins and evil
which we have committed. Let us repeat the words of Mahmood
Al-Warraaq, may Allah have mercy upon him: "O Allah, I have much hope
in Your forgiveness and You ]alone[ manage my affairs. I have
concealed my secrets from my relatives and others; You are the only
One to Whom I disclose them as I am confident that You will veil them.
O Allah! Do not fail me on the Day of Resurrection when all hidden
matters will be exposed. O Allah, do not reveal my secrets before
people; Your protection will provide me with an argument ]for my
forgiveness[, even though I have no basis for contention or a real
excuse."