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Monday, May 30, 2016

Schools of Thought and Sects, Dought & clear, - * Refutation of those who falsely claim that Shaykh al-Islam Ibn Taymiyah (mayAllah have mercy on him) was one of those who say that Allah is a physical entity



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Is it true that Shaykhul Islam Ibn Taymiyyah said that Allah is a filled body that does not have cavity (hole) inside, in 'Majmul Fatawa'', vol.17, pg.214/215 and Bayyan Talbis Jahmiyyah, vol.1, pg.511 etc like deviant aasharis and maturidis claim?
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Praise be to Allah
Firstly:
Shaykh al-Islam Ibn Taymiyah (may Allah have mercy on him) was subjected, by the promoters of innovation, to campaigns aimed at distorting his image, and that was only because he stood up to the promoters of innovation, debated with them, proved them wrong and highlighted the extent of their deviation from the path of the Prophet (blessings and peace of Allah be upon him) and his Companions, and he told them to adhere to the Qur’an and Sunnah. So these people and their followers got angry with him and started to fabricate lies against him, attributing to him words and ideas that he never said; in fact it is proven that he rejected and refuted such ideas!
One of the gravest sins that a person may commit is slander, which means fabricating lies and attributing to a Muslim something that is not true. The sin is even worse if that Muslim against whom lies are fabricated is a respected scholar and one of the imams of Ahl as-Sunnah wa’l-Jamaa‘ah, such as Shaykh al-Islam Ibn Taymiyah (may Allah have mercy on him), because these people want to cast aspersions on him with regard to the methodology of Ahl as-Sunnah wa’l-Jamaa‘ah, and give precedence to their own deviant methodologies.
Secondly:
The methodology of Ahl as-Sunnah wa’l-Jamaa‘ah with regard to the names and attributes of Allah, may He be exalted, is well known; it is to affirm what Allah affirmed for Himself and deny what He denied for Himself, without likening His attributes to any of His creation, without discussing the nature of those attributes, without distorting the meanings thereof and without denying what is meant. This has been explained previously in a number of fatwas; see fatwa no. 122675.
With regard to novel terminology introduced byahl al-kalaam(Islamic philosophers), such as “physical entity” and “direction”, Ahl as-Sunnah neither confirm nor deny this terminology; rather they think that using these terms or denying them comes under the heading of reprehensible innovations.
As for what these words may mean, the one who uses these words is to be questioned as to what he means by that; then if the meaning he intends is correct, we affirm it, but if he intends a false meaning, we reject it. But we do not express these meanings except in the shar‘i terminology that is mentioned in the Qur’an and Sunnah; we do not use this novel terminology.
The views of Shaykh al-Islam Ibn Taymiyah (may Allah have mercy on him) with regard to this issue are well known, which is that it is not permissible to affirm the word “physical entity” with regard to Allah, may He be exalted, or to deny it either, because the Qur’an and Sunnah never used such a word, and because this is a very general word that could be used to refer to something true or it could be used to refer to something false. He stated that this is the view of Ahl as-Sunnah wa’l-Jamaa‘ah, including the Sahaabah, Taabi‘een and leading scholars of the Muslims, such as the four imams and others.
There follow some quotations from his books which highlight the lies of this fabricator with regard to what he attributed to Shaykh al-Islam.
Shaykh al-Islam Ibn Taymiyah (may Allah have mercy on him) said:
It is well-known that there is no report from any of the Prophets or from the Sahaabah or from the Taabi‘een or from any of the early generations of the ummah to suggest that Allah is a physical entity or that He is not a physical entity. Rather denying or affirming that is an innovation according to Islam. End quote.
Majmoo‘ al-Fataawa(5/434)
Thirdly:
We checked the two places in the books of Shaykh al-Islam that are mentioned in the question, and we did not find that he affirmed that Allah, may He be exalted, is a physical entity.
With regard toMajmoo‘ al-Fataawa(17/214-215), there is nothing of that nature mentioned there; rather there is a discussion of the meaning of the soorah “Qul Huwa Allahu Ahad”. He mentioned the meaning of the name of Allahas-Samad, and the difference of opinion among the commentators of the early generations (17/214-216).
Then he mentioned a lengthy discussion refuting various groups of innovators, and stated that the view of the leading scholars of Ahl as-Sunnah is the correct view. Then he said (17/303):
Imam Ahmad followed the way of his predecessors, the leading scholars of Ahl as-Sunnah wa’l-Jamaa‘ah, who adhered to the Qur’an and Sunnah and followed that which Allah revealed to them, which is to look and see:
Whatever we find that the Lord affirmed for Himself (of attributes) in His Book, we affirm it, and whatever we find that He denied for Himself, we deny it.
Every word that is found in the Qur’an and Sunnah by way of affirmation, the meaning of that word is to be affirmed.
Every word that is found by way of denial, the meaning of that word is to be denied.
As for words that are not found in the Qur’an and Sunnah, or even in the words of the Sahaabah and those who followed them in truth, and all the leading imams of the Muslims, either by way of affirmation or denial, and people disputed concerning them:
These words are not to be affirmed or denied, except after finding out about their meanings. Then if their meanings are found to refer to something that the Lord affirmed for Himself, they are to be affirmed.
If their meanings are found to refer to something that the Lord denied for Himself, then they are to be denied.
If we find that the wording may be used to affirm something true or false, or to deny something true or false, or it is so ambiguous that it may refer to something true or false, and the one who used it intended some of that, but when he uses it, it may give the impression to people, or make them understand, what he intends or what he does not intend:
Then in this case these words are not to be used in the context of either affirming or denying, such as the words “substance”, “physical entity”, occupying space”, “direction” and similar words. It is rare that anyone uses these words either to affirm or deny, but there will be some false notion inserted into it, even if he intended to say something sound.
The early generations and leading scholars disapproved of these novel terms because they contained falsehood and lies, and speaking about Allah without knowledge. [End quote]
This quotation is not sufficient; rather one should check what Shaykh al-Islam said at length concerning this issue, because there is great benefit in doing so, and it contains proofs of the lies of those who accused him of saying that Allah is a physical entity – Allah forbid. May Allah have mercy on him and forgive him.
What he discussed in his other important major work,Bayaan Talbees al-Jahamiyyah, and in his great book,Minhaaj as-Sunnah an-Nabawiyyah, or any of his other writings, does not go beyond what we have already quoted and explained here.
The other quotation referred to [in the question] is to be found inBayaan Talbees al-Jahamiyyah(1/511). The attribution here is to the first edition, which was published by Muhammad ibn ‘Abd ar-Rahmaan ibn Qaasim, as the questioner stated, and not the complete annotated version of the book. It has the same approach to the issue, but it should be noted that this text is quoted from the book of Shaykh al-IslamMinhaaj as-Sunnah an-Nabawiyyah, as was pointed out by the commentator in his footnote, so as to complete and make up for the shortcoming of the copy of the book that he had. Therefore we will quote the text from its original source, so as to see it in context, then we will refer the reader to the place where the quotation may be found in both books.
Shaykh al-Islam Ibn Taymiyah (may Allah have mercy on him) said:
As for the words “physical entity”, “substance”, “occupying space”, “direction” and so on, neither the Qur’an nor the Sunnah use these words when referring to Allah, either by way of denial or affirmation. Similarly, none of the Sahaabah or those who followed them in truth, or any of the leading scholars from among Ahl al-Bayt [the Prophet’s family] or otherwise, not one of them used such words when referring to Allah, either by way of denial or affirmation.
The first ones who were known to speak of such matters, by way of denial or affirmation, were ahl al-kalaam (Islamic philosophers), both those who denied the divine attributes, such as the Jahamis and Mu‘talizah, and those who affirmed the divine attributes, such as those among the Raafidis and others who believed that Allah is a physical entity.
Those who denied the divine attributes denied these words, and included in their denial attributes that Allah and His Messenger affirmed, such as the fact that Allah has knowledge, might, will, love, pleasure, and anger, and is exalted. They said: He does not see and He does not speak the Qur’an or anything else; rather what is meant by His speaking is that He creates words in some physical entity other than Himself, and so on.
Those who affirmed the divine attributes included in that attributes that Allah and His Messenger denied, to the extent that they said that He sees in this world by means of physical eyes, His hand could be shaken and He could be embraced… Allah, may He be glorified, is far above being described with any attributes that are exclusively for created beings, for anything that is exclusively for created beings is an attribute of imperfection, whereas Allah, may He be exalted, is far above all imperfection and deserves the utmost perfection. There is no equal to Him in any of the attributes of perfection, for He is far above shortcomings in any way; in His utmost perfection He is far above there being anything like unto Him, as He, may He be exalted, says (interpretation of the meaning):
“Say (O Muhammad (Peace be upon him)): ‘He is Allah, (the) One.
‘Allah-us-Samad (The Self-Sufficient Master, Whom all creatures need, He neither eats nor drinks).
‘He begets not, nor was He begotten;
‘And there is none co-equal or comparable unto Him’”
[al-Ikhlaas 112:1-4]. [end quote]
See:Minhaaj as-Sunnah an-Nabawiyyah(2/527-533).
Then Shaykh al-Islam (may Allah have mercy on him) said:
We should study the issues in this field, and whatever Allah and His Messenger affirm (with regard to divine attributes) we should affirm.
And whatever Allah and His Messenger deny, we should deny.
Whatever words are mentioned in the texts are to be adhered to when affirming and denying, so we affirm what the texts affirm of words and meanings, and we deny what the texts deny of words and meanings.
As for the words concerning which there is a dispute among those scholars of the later generations who invented them– such as the terms “physical entity”, “substance”, “occupying space”, “direction” and the like – they should not be denied or affirmed until we see what was meant by the one who uttered them.
If what he meant when denying and affirming was a correct meaning that is in accordance with what the Messenger said, then the meaning that he intended by that word should be approved, but it should be expressed using the words that are used in the texts (of the Qur’an and Sunnah), and not in these invented, ambiguous words, except in the case of necessity, and with some comments to explain the intended meaning.
Necessity refers to cases such as when one is discussing the issue with someone and cannot convey what he wants to convey to him except by using these words.
But if the one who uttered it intended some false meaning, then that meaning should be rejected.
If he combines both true and false meanings, then what is true should be affirmed and what is false should be rejected.
If two people agree on the meaning, and dispute as to whether this wording refers to it or not, it should be expressed in a way on which they both agree on the meaning thereof, and the one who is closest to being correct is the one who is in harmony with the regular usage of language. End quote.
Minhaaj as-Sunnah an-Nabawiyyah(2/554-555)
What we must do is read the words of the scholar, and indeed the words of any writer, in the context in which the author mentioned it. As for taking only part of what he said, and quoting it in isolation of what comes before and after it, so as to prove one’s claims or lies, this is the way of the promoters of innovation and deviation.
What words could be clearer, and what way of discussing this issue could be better, than the way in which Shaykh al-Islam discussed this matter? What a great imam he was!
We hope that what we have mentioned above is sufficient.
We ask Allah, may He be exalted, to show us the truth as truth and help us to follow it, and to show us falsehood as false and help us to avoid it.
And Allah knows best.












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Schools of Thought and Sects, Dought & clear, - * It is essential to make friends with Muslim students in the west and cooperate withthem, instead of engaging in theological arguments



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I am a university student who has some friends with Ash`ari and Maturidi beliefs. When I try to explain that the belief of Ahl Al-Sunnah is to affirm Allahs attributes, they say that these finer details of creed are not important to ones religion as long as one believes in the six articles of faith and does not commit shirk. Rather, we should focus on increasing in worship and abandoning sins. How should I respond? I get on quite well with these brothers and we co-operate in organising Islamic classes and lectures on campus.
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Praise be to Allah
So long as the truth is clear in your mind, and you think it most likely that there is no deceit on their part in order to spread their innovation, there is no reason why you should not accept their invitations and refrain from debating issues concerning which you differ, in order to focus on what is more important and cooperate with them in confronting the greater danger and serving the greater interest.
You are living in a country where there is the greatest need to support and help one another, not to be divided and fight. The ummah today needs each one of us to play his role wherever he is, and strive to overcome the many crises we face, which are leading to drifting away from religion, loss of identity, hidden colonization, occupation, poverty, ignorance, injustice, the spread of oppression and tyranny, and so on. These crises cannot be overcome by focusing on arguments or by giving precedence to differences of opinion that have existed throughout our Islamic history and have been the subject of much debate and argument.
We are not talking here about giving up the beliefs of Ahl as-Sunnah wa’l-Jamaa‘ah – Allah forbid. Nor are we talking about ignoring the need to research, discuss and examine these beliefs, and focus on the various issues of ‘aqeedah that have an impact on the thinking of the modern Muslim, and how we can build people with better understanding and stronger faith.
Rather we are talking about finding a way that could help us to focus our energy on constructive and positive activities, and unity. We are talking about discussing and recalling the most beautiful pages of our Islamic history, when people were guided by the light of knowledge and the sublime manners and attitudes of scholars, which taught us – in addition to adhering to the ‘aqeedah of Ahl as-Sunnah wa’l-Jamaa‘ah – to show mercy to people and not to look down on them at all, in accordance with the practical advice that was transmitted by al-‘Allaamah as-Sa‘di (may Allah have mercy on him) in his bookal-Munaazaraat al-Fiqhiyyah(p. 10): We cooperate in that on which we are agreed and excuse one another with regard to issues on which we differ.
This was the attitude of many scholars, both classical and modern: an attitude of creating harmony among Muslims and overlooking issues concerning which there were differences, and creating a framework that was broader than the issues of difference, in which they could work together and cooperate, making excuses for those who had different views concerning some issues. This was also the attitude of Shaykh al-Islam Ibn Taymiyyah, which manifested itself in many situations and in many of his statements, one of the most significant of which is that which we will quote here, in which he said:
People know that there was alienation and ill feeling between the Hanbalis and Ash‘aris, and I was one of those who tried the most to create an atmosphere of love and harmony among the Muslims, seeking to bring them together, and I was one of the most assiduous in following the commands of Allah to hold fast to the rope of Allah (the Qur’an). I was able to remove most of the resentment that people felt in their hearts, and I explained to them that Imam al-Ash‘ari was one of the greatest scholars of ‘ilm al-kalaam who affirmed his adherence to the way of Imam Ahmad (may Allah have mercy on him) and others who followed in his footsteps, as al-Ash‘ari himself mentioned in his books…
When I told them about some of the statements of al-Ash‘ari – and the Hanbalis saw that – they said: This is better than what we heard from Shaykh al-Muwaffaq, and the Muslims rejoiced at this reconciliation.
I also told them what Ibn ‘Asaakir had said about his (al-Ash‘ari’s) virtues: that the Hanbalis and Ash‘aris had been in harmony until the time of al-Qushayri, and when that friction occurred in Baghdad, there was division. And it is well-known that among all groups you will find some who are deviant and some who are righteous.
Moreover, throughout my life until this moment I have never called anyone – when teaching about the fundamentals of Islam – to the Hanbali madhhab or any other madhhab, and I have never been biased towards the Hanbalis. I have not mentioned that in any of my words, and I have only mentioned that on which the salaf and their scholars were unanimously agreed.… Furthermore, I have always been – and those who are close to me know this from me – one of those who most emphatically prohibit describing any particular individual as a disbeliever, evildoer or sinner, unless it is known that definitive proof has been established against him, in such a way that anyone who goes against that proof is either a disbeliever, evildoer or sinner.
I affirm that Allah has forgiven this ummah for all mistakes, which includes mistakes that have to do with issues of belief and mistakes that have to do with some religious practices.
The early generations differed concerning many of these issues, but none of them accused anyone of being a disbeliever, evildoer or sinner.
End quote fromMajmoo‘ al-Fataawa(3/22 7)
The point we are trying to emphasise is that ordinary people and non-specialists are not required to get involved in issues of differences concerning beliefs, because their understanding of these issues (and the different views concerning them) is insufficient and they will not be able to understand them properly, in which case they will not be able to handle their relationships with one another in the light of the differences concerning these matters in a proper and beneficial manner. Rather these differences will lead to schism, argument and division, and even to accusations of disbelief, innovation and treason, the reason for which will be their lack of understanding of the issues concerning which they differ and their lack of understanding of scholarly statements in the way in which the scholars intended them.
Therefore Shaykh al-Islam Ibn Taymiyah (may Allah have mercy on him) did not discuss these matters with ordinary people at all, and he did not explain the views of various groups in detail to anyone other than specialists, as he himself stated when he said:
As for the view of one who says that the hadiths and verses which speak of the divine attributes are not to be discussed in front of the masses, I have never discussed these issues with any of the common folk at all.
End quote fromMajmoo‘ al-Fataawa5/266
This does not mean that it is discouraged to learn what is mentioned in the Qur’an and Sunnah, and to discuss it in detail as much as one is able. Rather what is meant is to pay attention to Muslim unity in adhering to the main issues of knowledge and practice that are mentioned in the Qur’an and Sunnah, and to focus on creating an atmosphere of harmony and give precedence to that over discussing the details of some academic issues that are not a must for everyone, especially when living in non-Muslim lands or at times when the Muslims are weak, and people are not familiar with the Sunnah, and when the religion and its followers are in a state of alienation.
Shaykh al-Islam Ibn Taymiyah (may Allah have mercy on him) said:
The need of nations to know what is enjoined and what is forbidden is greater than their need to know the details of issues of belief concerning which belief in general terms is sufficient. As for commands and prohibitions, it is essential to know them in detail, because acting upon commands cannot be achieved unless one knows them in detail; and with regard to prohibited matters that must be avoided, it is essential to be able to distinguish between them and other things.
End quote fromal-Jawaab as-Saheeh(3/34)
And he said:
With regard to deeds that are enjoined, what is required concerning them is to do them, and it is not enough to believe in them in general terms. Rather it is essential to learn them in detail. This is in contrast to issues of belief, in which believing in general terms in what the Messenger brought with regard to the divine attributes and issues of the hereafter is sufficient.
Hence the scholars stated that it is sufficient to hold these beliefs in general terms, and they disapproved of discussing them in detail in such a way that could give rise to fighting and division, unlike the laws that are enjoined, with regard to which it is not sufficient to refer to them in general terms; rather they must be discussed in detail, learned in detail and put into practice.
End quote fromMajmoo‘ al-Fataawa(20/99). See also:Majmoo‘ al-Fataawa(17/388)
And he said:
What must be done is to enjoin ordinary people to believe in general terms in that which is proven by the texts and scholarly consensus, and tell them not to indulge in detailed discussions that will create division and differences between them, because division and differences are among the things that are most emphatically forbidden by Allah and His Messenger.
End quote fromMajmoo‘ al-Fataawa(12/237)
Here we may quote as evidence the hadith of Jundub ibn ‘Abdillah (may Allah be pleased with him) from the Prophet (blessings and peace of Allah be upon him), who said: “Read Qur’an (together) so long as your hearts are united then when you begin to argue (about the meaning), then stop and disperse.”
Narrated by al-Bukhaari (5060) and Muslim (2667).
Imam an-Nawawi (may Allah have mercy on him) said:
The command to stop and disperse when differences arise concerning the meaning of the Qur’an is understood by the scholars as referring to differences that are not permissible, or differences that could lead to that which is not permissible, such as differences concerning the Qur’an itself, or concerning an interpretation that is not subject to ijtihaad, or differences that could lead to doubt, confusion, friction, disputes or quarrels, and the like.
As for differences in deriving rulings that have to do with minor issues of religion, and debating with people of knowledge concerning that by way of learning and finding the truth, and their differences concerning that, that is not prohibited; rather it is enjoined and is a good deed. The Muslims have been unanimously agreed on that from the time of the Sahaabah up to the present.
End quote fromSharh Muslim(16/218-219)
See also the answer to question no. 192079
What must be paid attention to with regard to what we have mentioned above is two issues:
Firstly: whoever is ignorant of some issue of religion is excused for his ignorance, unless proof has clearly been established for him and the knowledge that the Messenger brought has reached him. Once that has reached him in a clear manner, in such a way that proof is established and leaves them with no excuse, then it is not permissible for him to turn away from it or to follow anything contrary to it, whether it is the view of a shaykh or a prominent figure, or the view of a madhhab, and the like. Allah, may He be exalted, says (interpretation of the meaning):
“It is not for a believer, man or woman, when Allah and His Messenger have decreed a matter that they should have any option in their decision. And whoever disobeys Allah and His Messenger, he has indeed strayed in a plain error”
[al-Ahzaab 33:36].
See also the answer to question no. 228033
Secondly: whoever learns the details of what the Messenger brought, to the best of his ability, whether they have to do with matters of belief or practical issues, then he is undoubtedly superior and of higher rank than one who is ignorant of that or of some of it, whether he is excused because of his ignorance or is negligent and therefore blameworthy.
Shaykh al-Islam Ibn Taymiyah (may Allah have mercy on him) said:
There are some people who believe in general terms; as for believing in detail, they are like one who was reached by much of what the Messengers brought, but some of it did not reach him, so he believes in whatever reached him from the Messengers, and whatever did not reach him he does not know, but if it reached him he would believe in it; so he believes in that which the Messengers brought in general terms.
If such a person acts upon what he knows that Allah has enjoined upon him, and he has faith and believes in Allah, then he is one of the close friends of Allah, may He be exalted, and his closeness to Allah is commensurate with his faith and fear of Him.
With regard to that concerning which proof has not been established for him, Allah, may He be exalted, will not take him to task for not knowing it or believing in it in detail, and He will not punish him for not doing that, but he will miss out on perfect closeness to Allah commensurate with what he has missed out on (of such knowledge).
Whoever knows what the Messengers brought, and believes in it in detailed terms and acts upon it, is more perfect in terms of faith and closeness to Allah than one who does not know that in detail and does not act upon it, but both of them are close friends of Allah, may He be exalted.
Paradise consists of levels that vary greatly, and the pious and believing close friends of Allah will be in those various levels according to their faith and fear of Allah.
End quote fromMajmoo‘ al-Fataawa(11/187-188)
Conclusion:
Our advice to you is to unite with these students who are committed to their religion in da‘wah activities and beneficial student activities, so as to support Islam and the Muslims, and to support important issues of the ummah and the fundamentals of our great faith. And you should refrain from arguing about detailed issues of belief if that will lead to division, dissent and dispute. But if there is a discussion about such issues on the basis of wisdom and beautiful discourse, in an atmosphere of love and harmony between you, then there is nothing wrong with such discussions in that case.
And Allah knows best.












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Saturday, May 28, 2016

Engagment, - Dought & clear, - * She gets marriage proposals but she is hesitant to accept



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Although I want to get married and have children, like all women, I am very hesitant to go ahead and do that. I have had offers, but I am worried that ifI agree to marry someone, he will turn out to be not of good character, and I do not know what will happen to me after that.
I hope that you can advise me about my problem.
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Praise be to Allaah.
What is prescribed for young people – both male and female – is to hasten to get married, following the advice of the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him): “O young men, whoever among you can afford it, let him get married, and whoever cannot afford it should fast, for it will be a shield for him.” Narrated by al-Bukhaari (5065), Muslim (1400).
This will also protect their chastity and bring stability.
Our advice to you is to accept the one who is religiously committed and of good character, after praying for guidance (istikhaarah) and consulting others. That is because the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) said: “If there comes to you one with whose character and religious commitment you are pleased, then marry (your daughter or female relative under your care) to him.” (al-Tirmidhi, 1084), from the hadeeth of Abu Hurayrah; classed as saheeh by al-Albaani in Saheeh al-Tirmidhi.
Those who are religiously committed and of good character are not unknown; they have their characteristics and signs, such as adherence to the Sunnah, regularly offering prayers in congregation, keeping company with righteous people and keeping away from temptation and evil.
Beware of hesitating and refusing too much, because if one goes away today, you may not see another like him tomorrow, as the poet says:
I had made the most the most of the opportunities I had, I would have attained great things.
If a suitor comes to you, then pray istikhaarah first. You will find a description of istikhaarah in the answer to question no. 2217.
If there is any good for you in that, Allaah will make it easy for you, otherwise Allaah will divert it from you by His knowledge.
Then your family should try to find out about the suitor by asking those who know him, such as his neighbours, colleagues at work, and the imam of his mosque. If he is righteous, regularly offers prayers in congregation and treats others well, then accept his proposal and be resolved and do not hesitate. If there is good in that for you, then Allaah will make it easy for you, otherwise He will divert it from you
whether he is righteous, regularly offers prayers in congregation and treats others well.
It is also important to ask about the family of the suitor, for his mother may not be of good character, or there may be some deviance in his family which does not give hope for a decent life for you.
If Allaah sends you someone who appears to be of good character and is keen to follow his religion, and is serious about marriage and is qualified for it, then accept his proposal and be resolute and do not hesitate. As the poet Tarafah ibn al-‘Abd said:
If you have made a decision then be resolute, for hesitating makes any decision worthless.
We ask Allaah to guide you and make you steadfast.
And Allaah knows best.












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