upon mankind."
(Quran,Surah 2: Verse 143)
General Characteristics of Islamic Civilization
Islam was destined to become aworld religionand to create a
civilization which stretched from one end of the globe to the other.
Already during the early Muslim caliphates, first the Arabs, then the
Persians and later the Turks set about to create classical Islamic
civilization. Later, in the 13th century, both Africa and India became
great centers of Islamic civilization and soon thereafter Muslim
kingdoms were established in the Malay-Indonesian world while Chinese
Muslims flourished throughout China.
Global religion
Islam is areligion for all peoplefrom whatever race or background they
might be. That is why Islamic civilization is based on a unity which
stands completely against any racial or ethnic discrimination. Such
major racial and ethnic groups as the Arabs, Persians, Turks,
Africans, Indians, Chinese and Malays in addition to numerous smaller
units embraced Islam and contributed to the building of Islamic
civilization.
Moreover, Islam wasnot opposedto learning from the earlier
civilizations and incorporating their science, learning, and culture
into its own world view, as long as they did not oppose the principles
of Islam. Each ethnic and racial group which embraced Islam made its
contribution to the one Islamic civilization to which everyone
belonged. The sense of brotherhood and sisterhood was so much
emphasized that it overcame all local attachments to a particular
tribe, race, or language--all of which became subservient to the
universal brotherhood and sisterhood of Islam. The global civilization
thus created by Islam permitted people of diverse ethnic backgrounds
to work together in cultivating various arts and sciences.
Although the civilization was profoundly Islamic, even non-Muslim
"people of the book" participated in the intellectual activity whose
fruits belonged to everyone. The scientific climate was reminiscent of
the present situation in America where scientists and men and women of
learning from all over the world are active in the advancement of
knowledge which belongs to everyone. The global civilization created
by Islam also succeeded in activating the mind and thought of the
people who entered its fold.
As aresult of Islam, the nomadicArabsbecame torch-bearers of science
and learning. ThePersianswho had created a great civilization before
the rise of Islam nevertheless produced much more science and learning
in the Islamic period than before. The same can be said of theTurksand
other peoples who embraced Islam.
The religion of Islam was itself responsible not only for thecreation
of a world civilizationin which people of many different ethnic
backgrounds participated, but it played a central role in developing
intellectual and cultural life on a scale not seen before. For
someeight hundred yearsArabic remained the major intellectual and
scientific language of the world. During the centuries following the
rise of Islam, Muslim dynasties ruling in various parts of the Islamic
world bore witness to the flowering of Islamic culture and thought.
In fact this tradition of intellectual activity was eclipsed only at
the beginning of modern times as a result of the weakening of faith
among Muslims combined with external domination. And today this
activity has begun anew in many parts of the Islamic world now that
the Muslims have regained their political independence.
A Brief History of Islam, The Rightly Guided Caliphs
Upon the death of theProphet(PBUH),Abu Bakr, the friend of the Prophet
and the first adult male to embrace Islam, becamecaliph. Abu Bakr
ruled for two years to be succeeded by'Umarwho was caliph for a decade
and during whose rule Islam spread extensively east and west
conquering the Persian empire, Syria and Egypt. It was 'Umar who
marched on foot at the end of the Muslim army into Jerusalem and
ordered the protection of Christian sites. 'Umar also established the
first public treasury and a sophisticated financial administration. He
established many of the basic practices of Islamic government. 'Umar
was succeeded by'Uthmanwho ruled for some twelve years during which
time the Islamic expansion continued. He is also known as the caliph
who had the definitive text of theNoble Qurancopied and sent to the
four corners of the Islamic world. He was in turn succeeded by'Aliwho
is known to this day for his eloquent sermons and letters, and also
for his bravery. With his death the rule of the "rightly guided"
caliphs, who hold a special place of respect in the hearts of Muslims,
came to an end.
The Caliphates
Umayyad
The Umayyad caliphate established in661was to last for about a
century. During this time Damascus became the capital of an Islamic
world which stretched from the western borders of China to southern
France. Not only did the Islamic conquests continue during this period
through North Africa to Spain and France in the West and to Sind,
Central Asia and Transoxiana in the East, but the basic social and
legal institutions of the newly founded Islamic world were
established.
Abbasids
The Abbasids, who succeeded the Umayyads, shifted the capital to
Baghdad which soon developed into an incomparable center of learning
and culture as well as the administrative and political heart of a
vast world. They ruled for over500 yearsbut gradually their power
waned and they remained only symbolic rulers bestowing legitimacy upon
various sultans and princes who wielded actual military power.
The Abbasid caliphate was finally abolished when Hulagu, the Mongol
ruler, captured Baghdad in 1258 AD, destroying much of the city
including its incomparable libraries. While the Abbasids ruled in
Baghdad, a number of powerful dynasties such as
theFatimids,AyyubidsandMamluksheld power in Egypt, Syria and
Palestine.
The most important event in this area as far as the relation between
Islam and the Western world was concerned was the series of Crusades
declared by the Pope and espoused by various European kings. The
purpose, although political, was outwardly to recapture the Holy Land
and especially Jerusalem for Christianity. Although there was at the
beginning some success and local European rule was set up in parts of
Syria and Palestine, Muslims finally prevailed and in 1187 AD,Saladin,
the great Muslim leader, recaptured Jerusalem and defeated the
Crusaders.
North Africa and Spain
When the Abbasids captured Damascus, one of the Umayyad princes
escaped and made the long journey from there to Spain to found Umayyad
rule there, thus beginning the golden age of Islam in Spain. Cordoba
was established as the capital and soon became Europe's greatest city
not only in population but from the point of view of its cultural and
intellectual life. The Umayyads ruled over two centuries until they
weakened and were replaced by local rulers.
Meanwhile in North Africa, various local dynasties held sway until two
powerful Berber dynasties succeeded in uniting much of North Africa
and also Spain in the 12th and 13th centuries. After them this area
was ruled once again by local dynasties such as the Sharifids of
Morocco who still rule in that country. As for Spain itself, Muslim
power continued to wane until the last Muslim dynasty was defeated in
Granada in 1492 AD thus bringing nearlyeight hundred yearsof Muslim
rule in Spain to an end.
Islamic History after the Mongol Invasion
The Mongols devastated the eastern lands of Islam and ruled from the
Sinai Desert to India for a century. But they soon converted to Islam
and became known as the Il-Khanids. They were in turn succeeded by
Timur and his descendents who made Samarqand their capital and ruled
from 1369 to 1500. The sudden rise of Timur delayed the formation and
expansion of the Ottoman empire but soon the Ottomans became the
dominant power in the Islamic world.
Ottoman Empire
From humble origins the Turks rose to dominate over the whole of
Anatolia and even parts of Europe. In 1453 Mehmet the Conqueror
captured Constantinople and put an end to the Byzantine empire. The
Ottomans conquered much of eastem Europe and nearly the whole of the
Arab world, only Morocco and Mauritania in the West and Yemen,
Hadramaut and parts of the Arabian peninsula remaining beyond their
control.
They reached their zenith of power with Suleyman the Magnificent whose
armies reached Hungary and Austria. From the 17th century onward with
the rise of Westem European powers and later Russia, the power of the
Ottomans began to wane. But they nevertheless remained a force to be
reckoned with until the First World War when they were defeated by the
Westem nations. Soon thereafter Kamal Ataturk gained power in Turkey
and abolished the six centuries of rule of the Ottomans in 1924.
Persia
While the Ottomans were concerned mostly with the westem front of
their empire, to the east in Persia a new dynasty called the Safavids
came to power in 1502. The Safavids established a powerful state of
their own which flourished for over two centuries and became known for
the flowering of the arts. Their capital, Isfahan, became one of the
most beautiful cities with its blue tiled mosques and exquisite
houses.
The Afghan invasion of 1736 put an end to Safavid rule and prepared
the independence of Afghanistan which occured formally in the 19th
century. Persia itself fell into turmoil until Nader Shah, the last
Oriental conqueror, reunited the country and even conquered India. But
the rule of the dynasty established by him was short-lived. The Zand
dynasty soon took over to be overthrown by the Qajars in 1779 who made
Tehran their capital and ruled until 1921 when they were in turn
replaced by the Pahlavis.
India
As for India, Islam entered into the land east of the Indus River
peacefully. Gradually Muslims gained political power beginning in the
early 13th century. But this period which marked the expansion of both
Islam and Islamic culture came to an end with the conquest of much of
India in 1526 by Babur, one of the Timurid princes. He established the
powerful Mogul empire which produced such famous rulers as Akbar,
Jahangir, and Shah Jahan and which lasted, despite the gradual rise of
British power in India, until 1857 when it was officially abolished.
Malaysia and Indonesia
Farther east in the Malay world, Islam began to spread in the 12th
century in northern Sumatra and soon Muslim kingdoms were establishd
in Java, Sumatra and mainland Malaysia. Despite the colonization of
the Malay world, Islam spread in that area covering present day
Indonesia, Malaysia, the southern Phililppines and southern Thailand,
and is still continuing in islands farther east.
Africa
As far as Africa is concerned, Islam entered into East Africa at the
very beginning of the Islamic period but remained confined to the
coast for some time, only the Sudan and Somaliland becoming gradually
both Arabized and Islamized. West Africa felt the presence of Islam
through North African traders who travelled with their camel caravans
south of the Sahara.
By the 14th century there were already Muslim sultanates in such areas
as Mali, and Timbuctu in West Africa and Harar in East Africa had
become seats of Islamic learning. Gradually Islam penetrated both
inland and southward. There also appeared major charismatic figures
who inspired intense resistance against European domination.
The process of the Islamization of Africa did not cease during the
colonial period and continues even today with the result that most
Africans are now Muslims carrying on a tradition which has had
practically as long a history in certain areas of sub-Saharan Africa
as Islam itself.
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