The Principles of Interpretation of the Qur'an

At the beginning of Islam it was commonly believed by some Sunnis that
if there were sufficient reason one could ignore the outward meaning
of Qur'anic verses and ascribe to them a contrary meaning. Usually the
meaning which opposed the outward literal meaning was called ta'wil,
and what is called "taw'il of the Qur'an" in Sunni Islam is usually
understood in this sense.
In the religious works of Sunni scholars as well as in the
controversies that have been recorded as taking place between
different schools, one often observes that if a particular point of
doctrine (that has been established through the consensus of the ulama
(scholars) of a school or through some other means) is opposed to the
outward meaning of a verse of the Quran that verse is interpreted by
ta'wil to have a meaning contrary to its apparent meaning.
Sometimes two contending sides supporttwo opposing views and present
Qur'anic verses inproof of their contentions. Each side interprets the
verses presented by the other side through ta'wil This method has also
penetrated more or less into Shi'ism and can he seen in some Shi'ite
theological works.
Yet, sufficient deliberation upon Qur'anic verses and the hadith of
the Household of the Prophet demonstrates clearly thatthe Holy Qur'an
with its attractive language and eloquent and lucid expression never
uses enigmatic or puzzling methods of exposition and always expounds
anysubject in a language suitable for that subject. What has been
rightly called ta'wil, or hermeneutic interpretation, of the Holy
Qur'an is not concerned simply with the denotation of words. Rather,
it is concerned with certain truths and realities that transcend the
comprehension of the common run of men; yet it is from these truths
and realities that the principles of doctrine and the practical
injunctions of the Qur'an issue forth.
The whole of the Qur'an possesses the sense of ta'wil, of esoteric
meaning, which cannot be comprehended directly through human thought
alone. Only the prophets and the pure among the saints of god who are
free from the dross of human imperfection can contemplate these
meanings while living onthe present plane of existence. On the Day of
Resurrection the ta'wil ofthe Qur'an will be revealed to every one.
This assertion can be explained by pointing to the fact that what
forces man to use speech, create words and make use of expressions is
nothing other than his social and material needs. In his social life
man is forced to try to make his fellow men understand his thoughts
and intentions and the feelings which exist within his soul. To
accomplish this end he makes use of sounds and hearing. Occasionally
alsohe uses to a degree his eyes and gestures. That iswhy between the
mute and the blind there can never be any mutual comprehension. For
whatever the blind man says the deaf cannot hear, and whatever the
mute makes understood through gestures the blind man cannot see.
The creation of words and the naming of objects have been accomplished
mostly with a material end in view. Expressions have been created for
those objects, states, and conditions that are material and available
to the senses or near to the sensible world. As can be seen in those
cases where the person addressed lacks one of the physical senses, if
we wish to speak of matters which can be comprehended through the
missing sense we employ a kind of allegoryand similitude. For example,
if we wish to describe light of color to one who is born blind, orthe
pleasures of sex to a child that has not reached the age of
adolescence, we seek to achieve our purpose through comparison and
allegory and through providing appropriate examples.
Therefore, if we accept the hypothesis that in thescale of Universal
Existence there are immense levels of reality which are independent of
the world of matter (and this is in reality the case), and that in
each generation there are among mankind but a handful who have the
capability of comprehending and having a vision of these realities,
then questions pertaining to these higher worlds cannot be understood
through common verbal expressions and modes of thought. They cannot be
referred to except by allusion and through symbolism. Since religious
realities are of this kind, the expression of the Quran in such
matters must of necessity be symbolic.
God says in His Book,
Lo! We have appointed it a Lecture in Arabic that haply ye may
understand.And Lo! in the Source of Decrees, which We possess, it is
indeed sublime, decisive. (Common comprehensioncannot understand it or
penetrate into it.) (XLIII: 3-4).He also says,
That (this) is indeed a noble Qur'an. In a book kept hidden, which
none toucheth save the purified. (LVI: 77-79).Concerning the Prophet
and his Household he says,
Allah's wish is but to remove uncleanness far from you, O Folk of the
Household, and cleanse you with a thorough cleansing. (XXXIII: 33).As
proved by these verses, the Holy Qur'an emanates from sources beyond
the comprehension of common man. No one can have a full comprehension
of the Qur'an save those servants of God whom Hehas chosen to purify.
And the Household of the Prophet are among thosepure beings.
In another place God says.
Nay, but they denied that(the Qur'an), the knowledge whereof theycould
not compass, and whereof the interpretation (in events)[ta'wil] hath
not yet come into them. (X: 40), (meaning the day of Resurrection when
the truth of things will become known).And again he says,
On the day (the Day of Resurrection) when the fulfillment [ta'wil]
thereof (of the whole Qur'an) cometh, those who were before forgetful
thereof will say.The messengers of our Lord did bring the Truth! (VII:
53).Hadith
The principle that the hadith possesses validity, as attested by the
Qur'an,is not at all disputed among Shi'ites or in fact among all
Muslims. But because of the failure of some of the early rulers of
Islam in preserving and guarding the hadith,and the excesses of a
group among the companions and followers of the Prophet in propagating
hadith literature, the corpus of hadith came to face a certain number
of difficulties.
On the one hand, the caliphs of the time prevented the writing down
and recording of the hadith and ordered any pages containing texts of
hadith to be burned. Sometimes also any increase in activity inthe
transmission and study of hadith was forbidden. In this way a certain
number of hadithwere forgotten or lost and a few were even transmitted
with a different or distorted meaning. On the other hand, another
tendency also prevailed among another group of the companions of the
Holy Prophet who had had thehonor of seeing his presence and actually
hearing his words. This group, which was respected by the caliphs and
the Muslim community, began an intense effort to propagate the hadith.
This was carried to such an extent that sometimeshadith overruled the
Qur'an and the injunctionof a Qur'anic verse was even considered
abrogated by some people through a hadith. Often the transmitters of
hadith would travel many miles and hear all the difficulties of
travelling in order to hear a single saying.
A group of outsiders whohad worn the dress of Islam and also some of
the enemies within the ranks of Islam began to change and distort some
of the hadith and thus diminished the reliability and validity of the
hadiththat was then heard and known. For this very reason Islamic
scholars began to think of a solution. They created the sciences
concerned with the biography of learned men and chains of transmission
of hadith in order to be able to discriminate between true and false
hadith.